a m a /Jw^ ru -- CHATJTAUQIJA EDITION POPULAR ZOOLOGY BY J. DORMAN STEELE, PH.D. AUTHOR OF A SERIES IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES AND J. W. P. JENKS, A. M. PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY IN BROWN UNIVERSITY "And Nature, the old nurse, took The child upon her knee, Saying, 'Here is a story-book Thy Father hath written for thee. ' ' Longfellow's " Tribute to Agassiz. " NEW YORK / CHAUTAUQUA PRESS C. L. S. C. DEPARTMENT A POPULAR SERIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE, BY J. DORMAN STEELE, F'H.D., K.G.S., Author of the Fourteen Weeks Series in Natural Science, etc., etc. New Popular Chemistry New Descriptive Astronomy. Ne-w Popular Physics. New Hygienic Physiology. New Popular Zoology. Popular Geology. An Introduction to Botany. BARNES' HISTORICAL SERIES, ON THE PLAN OF STEELE;S FOURTEEN-WEEKS IN THE SCIENCES. A Brief History of the United States. A Brief History of France. A Brief History of Ancient Peoples. A Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern Peoples. A Brief General History. A Brief History of Greece. A Brief History of Rome. A Popular History of the United States. The required books of the C. L. S. C. are recommended by a Council of six. It must, however, be understood that recommendation does not involve an approval by the Council, or by any member of it, of every principle or doe- trine contained in the book recommended. Copyright, 1887, by A, S. BARNES & Co. THIS work is prepared upon the same general plan as the pre- ceding books of Dr. Steele. Among the principal features are : Brevity ; directness of statement ; such a presentation of the subject as will lead the pupil to love the study ; frequent foot-notes, con- taining anecdotes, curious facts, explanations, etc.; a uniform system of analysis in bold paragraph titles ; and a gradual introduction of scientific terms and language, so as to fit the scholar to read zoolog- ical literature. Believing that a description of a new animal is assisted by using a wood-cut, the authors have aimed to give a, figure of each one men- tioned ; accompanying it, where necessary, with minor illustrations of functional peculiarities. In order not to discourage the beginner with dry and dull anatomical details, the text is largely occupied with biography, telling "how animals act, think, and are mutually related"; for a fact concerning the adaptation, habits, etc., is as valuable and far more interesting to students, than one about some unpronounceable bone or muscle. To lead, however, to closer observation, characteristic physiolog- ical distinctions introduce, in general, each Branch, Class, and Order. A section is also given on Comparative Anatomy, and numerous cuts of skeletons will enable any teacher familiar with the subject to continue it as desired. The limits of the book compelled a selection to be made from the numberless animal forms. Every class, however, is named, with most of its orders and many of the principal genera, each one illus- trated by a cut and description of a typical species. Tables for classification of the Vertebrates precede, in general, every division. These will enable the pupil to refer any animal to its order, and, VI PREFACE. in many instances, to its genus ; though it should be borne in mind that the characteristics given are applicable to the genera and species described in the text, and not necessarily to all belonging to the order. In addition to these analyses, a tabular view of all the animals treated is inserted in the Appendix. It has not seemed best to define each term in the text, but the Index is very full, and contains the explanation, definition, and refer- ence of every ordinary zoological word used in the book. As far. as possible, each scientific name is followed, in parenthesis, by its pro- nunciation. To guide in pronouncing the titles of the cuts, the quantity of the penult and the position of the accent are carefully given. Ample directions to the beginner for collecting and preserving specimens are given in the Appendix. These, with the hints in the foot-notes, will enable the pupil to undertake the study of Nature understanclingly. The present edition of "Fourteen Weeks in Zoology," not only revised, but largely rewritten and entirely reversed in its arrange- ment, though retaining those salient features that have given the work such popularity for ten years, appears under the joint author- ship of Professors Steele and Jenks, the latter being alone responsible for accuracy of statement and the general plan of treatment of the subject. The entire manuscript was read to Dr. Steele, the week before his decease, and amended by most valuable suggestions from him both as to the matter and the phraseology ; and the last literary work of his life was that of writing a long letter to the Publishers, approving the new arrangement and detailing his ideas in respect to the typographical execution. Hence the work, as now presented to those in our High Schools and Academies who are beginners in the study of animal life, is hardly a posthumous book on the part of the deceased lamented author, as it goes forth on its errand, stamped with his living approbation. Many of the cuts were taken from nature ; the others were se- lected from the works of Owen, Carpenter, Wood, Milne-Edwards, Jones, Woodward, Claus and Sedgwick, the Pictorial Museum, etc. THE Tables are not, at first, to be committed to memory, but only read to give a general view of the subject, and afterward learned by a constant reference to them as each class, order, etc., is taken up. Thus, the table on page XITI should be in constant use during the term, and the last part would not be fully under- stood until the book is finished. The text contains nothing which the cut can better exhibit ; hence the figure should be studied care- fully. The teacher is advised to require his pupils to draw on the board an outline of each animal, showing its size as obtained from the scale under the cut, and every peculiarity in the structure of its teeth, claws, hoofs, bill, etc. This should be followed by a familiar description, drawn from the cut, the text, the teacher's in- structions, and every other source of information above all, the creature itself, where it can be secured. (See note, p. 127.) Pupils should be encouraged to make original researches. They can prepare (see page 283) the skeleton of a cat, dog, or other small animal. They can secure common birds, squirrels, frogs, snakes, and insects ; and a little practice will often develop a taste for curing and mounting, which will be as instructive as delightful. They can make collections of birds' eggs and nests. Even the careful study of a common fowl or an oyster, a bird building its nest, an ox chewing its cud, a spider spinning its web, a cat catching a mouse, the varied paces of a horse, or the metamorphosis of a caterpillar, will give a VI 11 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. fresh zest to t/he work. If any opportunity offers, the class should visit a menagerie, book in hand, name the animals, and verify the statements of the text. The knowledge of the teacher should be sufficient to fill out and supplement the brief descriptions of a text-book. The following works will furnish additional facts, and aid in further investigations. Pupils may often be persuaded to procure copies as a foundation for their library: Packard's "Guide to the Study of Insects," and his "Zoology"; Dana's "Corals and Coral Islands"; "The Standard Natural History"; Coues' "Key to North American Birds"; Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway's "North American Birds"; Emerton's "Life on the Sea-shore"; Carpenter's "Comparative Physiology"; Jordan's "Vertebrates of North America"; Glaus and Sedgwick's "Zoology." The back volumes of the "American Naturalist," "Science," "Popu- lar Science Monthly," and "Harper's Magazine" (see Natural History in the Index volume), contain numerous excellent articles, many of them finely illustrated. The above-named books, as well as a micro- scope, so essential to efficient instruction, can be obtained of the publishers of this work, Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co., Ill and 113 William St., New York. Specimens of all the typical species of ani- mals, as well as many beautiful casts, are constantly kept for sale by Prof. Henry A. "Ward, Rochester, N. Y. Skins for study of either birds or mammals, or handsomely mounted cabinet specimens, also material for laboratory work as well as dissecting instruments, can be obtained of J. M. Southwick, Providence, R. I. PAGE INTRODUCTION . xi Organisms divided into two Kingdoms .... xi Classification ; Species, Q-enus, Family, Order, Class, Branch, xii Animal Kingdom, Branches of xiii I. THE INVERTEBRATES. 1. BRANCH PROTOZOA 2. PORIFERA . 3. CCELENTERATA 4. ECHINODERMATA 5. VERMES . 6. MOLLUSCA . 7. ARTHROPODA . 1 8 10 18 24 34 50 II. THE VERTEBRATES. 8. BRANCH VERTEBRATA . The Tunicates The Acrania . The Cyclostoma . The Elasmobranchii The Ganoidei 85 86 86 88 89 91 R S (i CONTENTS. The Teleostei . The Dipnoi . The Batrachia The Reptilia The Aves The Mammals PAGE 94 105 106 112 124 179 III. APPENDIX. MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS 279 HINTS FOR PRESERVING SKINS OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS . . . 280 HINTS FOR STUDYING THE LOWER VERTEBRATES 282 HINTS FOR PREPARING LIGAMENTAL SKELETONS OF THE VERTEBRATES. 283 HOMOLOGIES OF THE VERTEBRATES 283 TABLE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM ... ... 288 INDEX AND GLOSSARY . 309 INTRODUCTION. FIG. 1. IN examining different objects and substances, we in- stinctively distinguish between inorganic and organic matter. Organic matter presents us with material which has, or once had life, and is of a definite structure. It is made up of one or many units, so-called cells, each of which, though generally of small size, bears the same re- lation to an organism that a tile might bear to a build- ing. On examining several cells from different organisms, as we might examine the tiles from different houses, we find that they resemble one another, in that each is com- posed of a nutritive material, the pro- toplasm (pro'to plazm), which may be inclosed by a thin cell-wall, and may contain an area, the nucleus (nu'kle us), which in turn may present one or more foci, the nucleoli (nu kle'o li). An isolated cell, absorbing food, may grow and sub- divide, each subdivision again subdividing, until a com- plex organism, or broad patches, called tissues, are formed. Organisms are naturally divided into two kingdoms the vegetable and the animal the lower forms of each of which so resemble one another as almost to defy dis- tinction. Group of Cells. Cw, Cell- wall. JV, Nucleus, n, NuclS'olus. P, Pro- toplasm. (Greatly en- larged.) Xll INTRODUCTION. The study of animals, Zoology (zool'oji) [zO'on, ani- mal; log' os, a discourse], would naturally begin with the more simple forms, and finally conclude with those of the highest development. We would not, however, were we even to include a consideration of all fossilized, as well as living, forms, meet with an unbroken series ; but would find rather a branched arrangement, the ultimate twigs of which might represent the living forms. It is the province of systematic zoology to discover the rela- tions that these ultimate twigs bear to one another and to their supporting branches, giving us finally a natural arrangement, a complete classification. Classification. --The systematic zoologist first deals simply with individuals; finding several which bear a strong resemblance to one another, but nevertheless have some little points of variation. The few he picks out may be the swallows, and he gives to them a character- istic generic name, Hirundo (hi run'do), and characterizes each peculiar form under this genus, by some specific adjective, as horreorum (hor re o'rum), "of the granaries," for the Barn Swallow, and Hirundo bicolor (bi ktii'or) for the Two-colored Swallow.* Several birds may be swallow-like but not true swal- lows ; these would be given different generic and specific names, but would be included in the family of swallows, the Hirundinidae (hi run din'i de). Several families, as the swallows, sparrows, robins, etc., may show structural peculiarities which unite them into an order, the PASSERES (pas'se rez). Several orders, however, resemble one another in many * This, giving to each animal a Latin or Latinized generic and specific name, is called the binomial (Vino' mi al) system of nomenclature (no men Mat' ur), and is that adopted by naturalists throughout the world. INTRODUCTION. Xlll important structural and anatomical peculiarities and are united into a single class, AVES (a'vez), which includes all the birds. The birds are united with other classes, as the fishes, reptiles, mammals, etc., in being built on the same gen- eral plan, and are regarded as off-shoots of a single 'branch, the VERTEBRATA (ver te bra' ta). Several branches, as vertebrates, arthropods (ar'thr6 podz), etc., spring from the main trwik, or ANIMAL KINGDOM. As will be seen further on, an effort has been made to have these scien- tific terms characteristic. A general arrangement of the Animal Kingdom would be tabulated as follows : BRANCHES. SINGLE CELLED ANIMALS Protoso'a. V) Ech i no derm' a td opening. Exhibiting a more or less obvious seg' mented structure. WITHOUT | JOINTED I Not covered by a " mantle." Ver' met. LOCOMOTORY f Covere d by a " mantle." Mollus'cd. APPENDAGES. J \VrTH MOJ!E OR LESS JOINTED LOCOMOTORY . APPENDAGES. > Skeleton external. Skeleton internal. Arthrop'o dd. Ver tebr a'td. I. THE INVERTEBRATES; BRANCH PROTOZOA (pro to zo'a). FIG. 2. SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS. This, the introductory Branch, includes those animals which have the simplest structure. The Protozoans are minute forms, seldom equaling a pin's head in size, and are generally found only in salt and fresh water. Their bodies are soft and jelly-like, each contain- ing one or more nuclei, and often presenting a granular mass of food, which has been taken into the central portion of the body. When exam- ined with a microscope of considerable power, there is seen to be a small por- tion, containing a fluid, which is repeatedly sent out in divergent rays through the body substance, or protoplasm. This portion is called the pulsating vacuole (vak'u oi), and serves to force the nutritive products of digestion over the body. * The term " Invertebrates " will become obvious further on in the study, when contrasted with the term " Vertebrates." t A Diatom (dl'a t&m) is one of the lower plants. A mce'ba pro'tl us. A, Indi- B, An Individual vidual that has surrounded a subdividing. The Diatom t (d) from which it is drawing nourishment. Pi; Pulsating or Contractile Vac- uole. N, Nucleus. /, Par- ticles of Food. P, Pseudo- podia. (Greatly enlarged.) lower part becom- ing separate from the upper, was ob- served to again subdivide. (Great- ly enlarged.) 2 BRANCH PROTOZOA. CLASS RHIZOPODA (ri zop'6 da). The members of this class are often little more than animated drops of jelly-like protoplasm, which move about by simply thrusting forth a small portion from any part of their body, into which the remaining portion slowly rolls. On meeting with a suitable piece of food, this is taken into the body, by the animal's rolling itself around and over it. In many forms, there is deposited around this jelly- like body, a perforated shell, through the holes, or foram- ina (fo ram'i na), of which, projections of the body can be thrust to seize and digest food outside of the covering. Protozoans which are capable of thus thrusting portions of retractile protoplasm from their bodies are called RHIZOPODS (rlz'o^podz), as these extended foot-like portions, pseudopodia (su do po'di a), often have the branched ap- pearance of roots. ORDER FORAMINIFERA (fo ram i nif'e ra). . The members of this order may, or may not, be pro- tected by a porous shell. Of the latter kind, the Amoeba (a me'ba) inhabits nearly every small body of fresh water, and is often found in great numbers. When observed under the microscope, it is seen to move about and secure its food by thrusting out pseudopodia. One or more contractile vesicles (ves'i klz) and nuclei are gen- erally present, and the more central area is colored by the presence of food granules (gran'ulz). Two Amcebse, while slowly rolling about, may meet and devour each other, and a single animal may voluntarily subdivide and form two individuals. Indeed, this self-fission (fish' an), CLASS RHIZOPODA. FIG Arcel'la den t-l'ta. Crown Amoeba. Pseudopodia (p). (Greatly enlarged.) FIG. 4. as it is called, is the ordinary method whereby the Amcebse are multiplied.* Figure 8 represents an Amoeba-like Rhizopod, which is found in great abundance in mossy pools. It will be observed to have a regularly formed shell, or covering, into which it is able to withdraw. The Foramiiiifera proper are marine, be- ing; found in great abundance on the high Projecting from the shell are several seas, where their dead shells fall to the bot- tom in a continual shower and form 'there, in time, a deposit of great thickness, which, as it hardens, be- comes limestone. Thus, though each one is almost infinitely small, these animals, working from earliest ages, have been active agents in molding and modifying the geological formation of the globe, f Globigerina (glob ij er I'na) is the most abundant form, its dead shells character- izing the ooze that covers the ocean depths. On quiet evenings, the live ani- mals may be skimmed from the surface of the water, though it is quite difficult to secure specimens which have not been mutilated, as the long calcareous (kal ka're us) FlG 5 spines are very brittle. * When the surroundings of the ani- mal are unfavorable for reproduction by fis- sion, budding may take place. In this case, the new Rhizopod, in some species, remains attached to the shell of the parent, giving rise to the forms known as Nummulites, etc. t Foraminifers (fo ra mm'ifers) have fur- nished in large part the extensive chalk-cliffs of England, and much of the architectural material of the world, as well as that of the marl-beds, so abundant on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Globigerl'na bul loi'des. (Greatly enlarged.) Num mu tt'tes a tn'i ca. Rhizopod. ORDER FIG. 6. He R o sphce' ra echlnoid'es. Spiny Radiolarian. (Greatly enlarged. ) BRANCH PROTOZOA. RADIOLARIA (ra di o la'rf a). The Radiolarians are characterized by the possession of a silicious (si ir- shus), not calcareous, armor from which often project a multitude of long di- verging spines. No pulsating vacuole has as yet been discovered, though the body is much more granular than in the previous order. The pseudopodia are capable of being extended to a great distance, often forming a deli- cate net-work outside the shell,* and variously used. CLASS INFUSORIA (In fu so'rl a). We now come to those Protozoans which, unlike the Rhizopods, have an elastic covering for the body, pro- vided with one or many whip-like prolongations. These prolongations incessantly lash the water, as organs of locomotion, or whip the food into an opening in the cov- ering, or sac. From this opening, the food passes to the central portion of the body. One or more nuclei and a contractile vacuole are invariably present. Many of the forms possess, also, a thin membranous covering, or cu- ticle (ku'ti kl). INFUSORIA make their appearance in vessels of water, either salt or fresh, which contain decomposing animal or vegetable matter. From their abundance in these in- fusions they derive their name. * These animals are found in large mimbers on the surface of the ocean, and their dead shells, like those of the Foraminifera, are not infrequently found in the solid rocks of the land, showing conclusively that such rocks were once cov- ered by the ocean. CLASS INFUSORIA. FIG. T. PIG. 8. ORDER FLAGELLATA (fla jel' la ta). Flagellate (fia'jei lat) Infusorians are peculiar in that they seldom possess more than one or two flagella, or lashes. They are extremely minute and resemble in va- rious respects the lower plants. They are, indeed, con- sidered by many zoologists as the property of botanists. They are distinct, however, in that their motions seem to be more definite than those of -flagellate plants, in possessing a contractile vacuole and in using the flagellum to force bits of solid food into a small opening at its base, which answers for a mouth. The Green Euglena (ugle'na) often appears on the surface of stagnant pools, forming a green scum. Under the microscope it is seen to move rapidly about by lashing with its flagellum. Oodosiga (ko dos' I ga) is a minute form found in colonies* attached to the stems of fresh-water plants. It is peculiar in having the flagellum surrounded by a collar. The Noctiluca (nok tl lu'ka) is of interest, in that it has the power of producing a phosphorescent light. During cjuiet evenings of the sum- mer months, millions of these animals rise to the surface of the ocean, lighting the waves for miles in extent, with FIG. 7Eu glS'na mr'i dis. Green Euglena. F, Flagellum at base of which is an opening through which food (/) may be forced into the body sub- stance. Pv, Pulsating vacu- ole. N, Nucleus. (Greatly enlarged.) FIG. 8. Co dfo'i ga bo trfj' ff. Clustered Codosiga. S, Sup- porting stem. Pr, Pulsating vesicle or contractile vacuole. N, Nucleus. <7, "Collar." F. Flagellum. (Greatly en- larged.) * Many of the flagellate forms are found collected in colonies. Each colony presents either a tree-like or a spherical structure, new forms taking their places in the old group. 6 BRANCH PROTOZOA. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. a most beautiful golden sheen. This is not the only form, however, which can lighten up the sea ; many other Protozo- ans, as well as certain individu- als of every other branch, have a like power. The Noctiluca not only multi- plies by fission, but may draw in its flagel- lum, lose its mouth and be- come a mere sphere of protoplasm, a cyst (stst). After resting encysted for some time, the cyst breaks open and a multitude of minute Noctilucse hasten forth. This phenomenon, which has also been observed in some Rhizopods, is called " multiplication by the forma- tion of zoospores " (zo'o sporz). Noc tilu'ca mil i a'ris. (Magnified.) Po ORDER CILIATA (sil i a'ta). a The Ciliate Infusoria have not the long flagella of the previous order, but are very generally provided with nu- merous small cilia which serve as or- gans of locomotion ; though, around an opening, which answers for a mouth, the cilia may be of larger size and of use in securing and retaining food. The Paramoecium (par a me'si um), is a very common form, found in stale water, while often attached to the stems of aquatic plants are colonies of ParanuK'cium cauda'tum. The arrows indicate the di- rection of the current in- duced by the action of the cilia. O, The course the food takes on entering the body substance. , Mat- ter no longer containing nutriment being thrust from the body. /, Food mass. N, Nucleus. Pv', Pulsating vesicle imme- diately before and Pv, immediately after con- traction. (Greatly en- larged.) CLASS INFUSORIA. FIG. 11. Vor ti eel' la neb u fif' e ra, or Sell - animalcule. C, Row of long Cilia encir- cling the disk or lid, L. S, Stem. Other letters same as in previous fig- ures. Note the elongated nucleus. (Greatly en- larged.) Bell Animalcules (an i mal'kulz). When viewed under a microscope each single bell is found to have a ciliated lid with a mouth-opening* under one portion of its cir- cumference. In the body can often be seen an elongated nucleus and one or two pulsating vacuoles. On being irri- tated, the stems of the small bells contract, bringing the entire colony against the object to which it is at- tached. During the warm weather, when the pools dry up, these ciliated animals draw in their cilia and enter an en- cysted stage ; a few days of moisture, however, will serve to burst the wall of the cyst, when a multitude of new Vor- ticellse swim forth. While considering the members of this first Branch of the animal kingdom, though dealing with animals con- sisting of but a single cell, we have found them capable of motion, of sensation, of finding, securing, digesting, and assimilating food, and of reproducing other animals similar to themselves. Thus, in their humble position, they are endowed with powers resembling, though not equaling, those of the higher forms. All other animals are made up of aggregations of cells, and are thus of such a size as to be generally appreciable to the unaided eye. This many-celled struct- ure of the remaining Branches has given to them the name of Metazoa (met a zo'a). * In many parasitic ciliata, as in the parasites of the higher animals, the mouth parts are wanting, and the animal receives its nutriment hy imbibition, no solid food being taken. 8 BRANCH PORIFERA. BRANCH PORIFERA THE SPONGES. SPONGES during life are quite different from the mere sponge-skeleton which is the article of commerce. They are more or less gelatinous (je lat'i nus) masses, found mostly in salt-water, and are supported by a frame- work which may be either calcareous, silicious, or horny. The forms of sponges are of great variety. FIG. 12. FIG. 13. CLASS SPONG-IA (spun'ji a). ORDER CALCISPONGIA (kal si spun'ji a). A Calcareous Sponge, G-rantia (gran'ti a), of about half an inch in height, well illustrates the anatomy of the Branch. Wa- ter is induced to enter, through ex- ternal pores (Fig. 12), to small ni- di ate chambers which are lined D with collared fla- A gellate cells. 7i a cil i n'ta. Calcareous Sponge. c, Internal Anatomy of Grantia. These flagella liot B, "cross - section, " diagrammatic. Crown of spines around excurrent opening. P, only whip along Pores admitting water, " as indicated by arrows, the Water, but, If, Root -like base. (About twice the natural like CodoSlgaS, size.) . ,, seize upon all nu- tritive matter which the water con- showing that the "pores" lead into converging tubes (C") which open internally into a central cav- ity ( C'c). S, Spicules arranged as strainers over "pores." C, More enlarged view of "tube," show- ing it to be lined with Codosiga- like cells. D, A few of the cells highly magnified. CLASS SPONGIA. tains. We can think of the sponge, then, as a colony* of protozoan animals, each living a separate life, though interested in the welfare of its neighbors. The water, after having been examined by these flagellate cells, passes on into a central cavity, and finally leaves the sponge through a large opening at the apex. Often attached to the side of this more simple sponge are so-called "buds," which are young sponges in process of growth. ORDER HYALOSPONGIA (hi al o spun'ji a). Silicious, or Glass Sponges, are less common.f ORDER CERAOSPONGIA (se ra o spun'ji a). Sponges having a horny skeleton are those with which we are most familiar. If a common bath* sponge, Euspongia adriatica (u spun'ji a ad ri at/I ka), be examined, there will be found small pores, leading in at the sides, while at the apex are the large excurrent openings. Those who cure the sponge, wash away the soft flagellate cells together with other slimy portions of the animal's body. All the more valuable forms are found in the warmer regions. We have thus seen that the Porifera are animals whose bodies consist of numerous cells, supported by a frame- work, or skeleton. Until recently, the members of this Branch were considered by many naturalists as plants ; but the working out of their life-history has proved them entitled to higher rank than some other animals. * "It is a kind of sub-aqueous city, where the people are arranged about the streets and roads in such a way that each can choose his food from the water as it passes along." HUXLEY. t The most beautiful is the Euplectella aspergillum (fl plgk'tel la 5s per gil'lumt, in which the silicious fibers form a delicate mesh of lace, known as Venus' Flower Basket, formerly considered a unique specimen of Chinese industry. 10 BRANCH CCELENTERATA. FIG. 14. BRANCH CCELENTERATA THE CORALS (kor'alz), ETC. We now meet, for the first time, with animals pro- vided with a true mouth; with a skin formed by layers of interlocking cells ; and with arms, or tentacles, for thrusting captured food through the mouth and into a central bag, which answers for a stomach. This "stom- ach" is of such a rudimentary nature that it has given the name (hidden intestine) to the Branch. The exterior of the body of COE- LENTERATES (se lent'er atz) is be- set with a countless multitude of cells, lasso-cells, which are capable of throwing out, with considerable force, long threads, the fine poisoned ends of which enter the skin of such ani- mals as may be passing by, produc- m ~ a para iy s i s an d rendering their capture easy. These animals are all aquatic : many are of considerable size, and others, the Corals, though often small as individuals, have been active agents in changing the outlines of coasts and in forming islands. CLASS HYDROZOA (hi dro zo'a). The common Hydra of every fresh-water pool and slowly running stream, introduces us to the HYDROZOA. ORDER HYDROIDEA (hi droicl'e a). The Hydra is about one fourth of an inch in length, and is often of a deep green, or brown color. By reference to A, The ceiis with its " lasso " partly shot forth. 7?, The same completely ex- tended. CLASS HYDKOZOA. ii FIG. 15. the figure, or, better still, to the live animal, we notice that it resembles the simple sponge in having an elon- gated body, at the apex of which is an opening. The radiate plan is here shown in the disposition of the long arms, or tentacles (ten'ta klz), which surround the mouth-opening. Other sponge-like characters are the possession of a central cavity and often the presence of small buds attached to the side of the parent. A further study, however, will re- veal many things in the Hydra quite different from the Sponge. There are no canals piercing the sides of the animal, hence the food, must enter in another way. If we watch a Hydra which has become attached to the side of a glass jar, containing green slime and stagnant ng drafus'-ea hanging from an aquatic plant. B, Lower por- water from some pool, we notice tion of body, o, position of nl P -] TP mouth. A, One of the arms. that the small forms of animal life y , A " bud " partly expanded. swimming around often become in- active on approaching the Hydra, being stung by the lasso-cells, and are seized in the animal's tentacles and thrust into the terminal opening, or mouth. The food, much larger than that capable of being captured by the flagellate cells of the sponge, passing through the mouth, simply enters the bag-like body cavity, where it is acted upon by the digestive fluids ; the hard, innutri- tions portions being finally ' expelled through the same opening by which they entered. Leading from the body showing disposition of two cell layers around the central cavity. (Enlarged about five times.) 12 BRANCH CCELENTERATA. FIG. 1C. E cavity are the cavities of the tentacles, which are simple outpushings of the body wall, being given their form by the nutritive fluid they contain. If this liquid is with- drawn, the tentacle sinks down to a mere elevation. On being irritated, the Hydra may allow most of the liquid to escape from its body, contracting itself into a small knob. It is thus without the supporting skeleton of the sponge. The Campanularian Hydroid (kam pan u la'ri an hy'droid), Obelia gelatinosa (o be'li a je lat i no'sa), is another repre- sentative of this class. It looks like a Hydra surrounded by a cup, into which, on contracting, it can withdraw. The cup may be sup- ported at the tip of a long branch- ing stock, the base of which is at- tached by root-like expansions to some support, as the side of a spile or the frond of a sea-weed. When these branching animals are examined during the summer months, some of the cups, or bells, are found to be without mouth or tentacles, and to have in place of the body, a central stock from which "buds" are growing. These buds finally break from their sup- port and swim away. This free form, of minute size, is called a Medusa (me du'sa), is bell-shaped, and swims by alternately expanding and contracting its rim. Around the edge, are several small sacs, connected together by a nervous cord and filled with liquid, in which are small, hard particles. When the water is disturbed, these im- OWVi a ge lat \ no'sa. S, Supporting stem. E, Cup. C, Contracted individual. H, Ex- panded individual showing its mouth at the center. S ' , Support bearing Buds (5), which event- ually leave the surrounding cup and swim away as A, the Me du'sa of an allied form. (Enlarged.) CLASS HYDROZOA. 13 pinge upon the nervous walls of the sac, giving to the animal the sensation of sound. Here, then, we meet for the first time with organs of hearing and with a con- nected nervous system. As the Medusa slowly propels itself through the water, stretching out behind is a series of long streamers armed with lasso-cells and of use to the animal in procuring its food and in directing its course. These free Medusas carry with them eggs, which, finally, on becoming at- tached to some support, develop into branchial Cam- panulariaii Hydroids.* ORDER DISCOPHORA (dis kof'6 ra). The life-history of the Jelly-fish well illustrates an- other group of the Hydrozoa. FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19. Hydra-like stage. Later stage of Fig. 17. Free-swimming Jelly-fish. E, Eye- spot. The several stages in the development of the Jelly-fish, Aure'ti a fla vi du'la. The egg, on becoming attached, finally develops into a form much resembling the Hydra. The portion of the body above the tentacles, however, continues to grow until it is enormous. Constrictions soon appear and di- vide it transversely into a series of "saucers," of which the upper and largest breaks away from those below it, turns over and swims away as did the Medusa of the * It is a singular fact that through a lack of food, certain Medusae have been known to return finally to their attached hydroid condition. 14 BRANCH CCELENTEKATA. Campanularian. Finally, all the saucers thus swim away and, rapidly growing, become Jelly-fish.* CLASS ACTINOZOA (ak ti no zo'a). Some of the members of this class are remarkably like the Hydra ; a circle of tentacles, disposed radially around the mouth, being supported upon a cylindrical body. ACTINOZOA, 'however, are exclusively salt-water ani- mals ; are of comparatively large size ; and have the mouth not opening directly into the body-cavity, but leading through an oesophagus (e sofa gus) into a bag-like stomach, which is open below and allows the nutritive products of digestion to pass into the body cavity. The oesophagus and stomach, moreover, are held in position by a radial series of fleshy partitions, the mesenterial folds, attached at their peripheries (pe rif'er iz) to the body wall. This body wall, though tough, is soft and flexible, and can be expanded with sea-water, which the animal, on being irritated, allows to escape through lateral pores and from the mouth, thus contracting itself to a mere knob. Often the body wall, as in previous forms, supports buds which in turn may support other buds, giving rise to branching forms. In such cases, the skin may be stiffened by the deposition of horny matter, or of lime, making a stem either tough and flexible, or hard and brittle. * Jelly-fish abound along the coast, and are to be seen by the thousands in cairn weather during the summer months, appearing at night like specters mov- ing about with their phosphorescent light. Though many are small, the size of a cup, others are as large as a tub, and their long streamers, armed with lasso- cells, cause no little annoyance to bathers. The bodies of Jelly-fish are loosely held together, and on being removed from the water, will often slip through the hand in strings. So much of the body is water, that, if allowed to remain in the sun's rays, after desiccation little more than a mere scale will be left. CLASS ACTIlsroZOA. 15 FIG. 20. ORDER ACTINOIDA (ak ti noi' da). The Actinoida are characterized by having the me- senterial folds and ten- tacles arranged on a plan of six, and by hav- ing the support, when present, of limy matter The common Seas- anemone (a nem'o ne) is often found attached to the spiles of bridges or to the under side of overhanging rocks. When expanded, its gracefully waving, bright colored arms give the animal a plant-like appearance. To the small unwary fish, however, this beautiful growth is most dangerous to ap- proach ; for the slightest contact with one of its ten- tacles will cause the Anemone to throw out a multitude of poisoned barbs. These barbs quickly paralyze the ^ animal which they pierce. The tentacles of the Me trid'i um mar gin a'tvm. Sea-anemone, as it appears when contracted. O 6 a - a n 6 m One are Diagrammatic view of an Ac tin o sd'on, Sea-anemone, one side being removed to show internal anatomy. T, Tentacles. 0, Mouth leading into the oesophagus ?), which in turn opens below into the general body cavity (C). M, A Mesentery. The lower, free ends of others can be seen as radiating lines below the oesophagus. P, Opening in mesentery. W, Body wall, ff, Section of tentacle showing that its cavity is continuous with the body cavity. (Natural size.) FIG. 21. 16 BRANCH CCELENTERATA. FIG. 22. FIG. 23. Cte nac'tis e chi nd'ta. Mushroom Coral. The co cy a' thus cy I'm dril' cH us. Cup Coral. smooth, hollow, and of a conical shape. They can be extended or withdrawn at will, and are of use to the animal as organs of touch. The number of tentacles is usually six, or some multiple of six. The simple Mushroom and Cup Corals are little more than Anem- ones. Between the mesenterial folds and at the base of the ani- mal, there is a deposit of lime. Some species measure over a foot in diameter. If we examine a branching coral, we shall find extend- ing through the axis, the remains of a single elongated parent Actinia (ak tin'I a), or polyp (p61'ip), from which others branch out in every direction, all keeping a communication with one another through the axial ca- nals, and also through the external fleshy investment. We thus see that the coral is deposited not as a result of the industry of the animals, but is merely, like our skeletons, a support. The reef-forming coral animals abound in tropical seas, while solitary corals are found at depths, even in the Arctic Ocean.* FIG. 24. Branching Coral. A, Plan of single ani- mal. * Dana, in describing the coral reefs of the Pacific, says : " The Actiniae may well be called the asters, carnations, and anemones of the submarine garden ; the tubipores are literally its pink beds ; the gorgoniae, its flowering twigs ; the madrepores, its plants and shrubbery. Astraeas (star corals) often form domes amid the grove, embellished with green or purple blossoms ; hemispheres of meandrina (brain coral) appear as if enveloped in a net-work of flowering vines; and vases of madrepores stand on a cylindrical base covered with branches, spreading gracefully from the center and decked with sprigs of tinted polyps. CLASS ACTINOZOA. 17 Fie. 25. CoralTium rU'brum. Red Coral. The hard central axis is seen projecting toward the left. ORDER ALCYONARIA (al SI O na'rl a). This order includes those Polyps which have the me- senterial folds and tentacles arranged on a plan of eight. The growth is supported on a horny or calcareous, often branching axis, surrounding which is a limy layer depos- ited in plates, allowing consid- erable flexibility. It is into the minute pores of this outer layer that the Polyps can contract.* The Red Coral, prized for jewelry, is the highly polished central axis of an alcyonarian Polyp, found growing, in small quantities, in the Mediterranean Sea. The Sea-fan is also a representative of this or^ler. Its interlacing branches are covered with a purple or a yel- low calcareous layer which, on dry- ing, may cleave off, exposing the black horny axis. FIG. 26. GOT go' m a fla bel' lum. Fragment of Sea-fan, showing the inter- locking of the branches. S, The central horny axis. FIG. 27. * An aberrant form classed in this order is the Organ-pipe Coral, which consists of cylin- drical tubes arranged like the pipes in a church organ. Each one is the cell of a single polyp, and the whole number in the mass is the progeny of the one that first became fixed at the base. Cross-plates at intervals preserve the unity of the mass. The mouth is located between the bases of the tentacles, Tutnp'ora fnus'ica Organ-pipe Coral. 18 BRANCH ECHINODEKMATA. BRANCH ECHINODERMATA (Sk i no dsrm-a ta>. THE STAR-FISHES, ETC. The ECHINODERMS (e kin' 6 dermz) present a radial structure, have the digestive tract without direct con- nection with the body cavity, have the skin indurated (in'du rat ed) by calcareous plates, and are generally free to move about. All are marine. CLASS CBINOIDEA (krlnoid'ea). At early periods of the earth's history, the CRINOIDS (kri'noidz) abounded ; now they are extremely rare, being seldom obtained except from deep water by dredging. FIG. 28. ORDER BRACHIATA (bra ki a'ta). The Norwegian Crinoid found in the North Atlantic at depths of 100 to 1,000 fathoms, is one of the smaller species. A long stem attached to the mud by root-like branches, supports a five-rayed animal, of the general appearance of a lily. As in the other metazoan animals thus far treated, the mouth is placed in the center of the disk from which the main rays diverge ; but, unlike the Cce- lenterates, a limy deposit prevents the quick contraction of any portion of the animal, and renders movement slow and limited. The food, moreover, which has been thrust down the oesophagus, has the nutritive portions absorbed by the walls of an alimentary canal. Along the upper surface of each Rhlzocri'nus loften'sis. The Norwegian Crinoid, or Stone-lily. CLASS ASTEROIDEA. 19 arm, is a longitudinal groove from which project a multi- tude of small retractile tentacles, the ambulacral uppend- ages. Other species of Crinoids finally break from the top of the stock and crawl away, free forms. These free Crinoids introduce us to the Star-fishes. CLASS ASTEROIDEA (as ter oid'e a). The STAR-FISHES have the body much flattened and the ambulacral appendages, when present, provided with terminal suckers, of use in locomotion as well as in secur- ing food. All are invariably free, i. e., are not supported by a stock. ORDER ASTERIDEA (as ter id'e a). The common Star-fish is abundant along the sea-shore, where it commits great depredations on the oyster beds. Upon the lower side of each ray are several rows of am- bulacral suckers, which may be thrust forth and become attached to foreign bodies; they are then contracted and the animal drawn up to the point of attachment, thus producing a slow locomotion. As the animal crawls, mouth downward, these suckers bring it over its food, which is thrust through the mouth into the stomach ; or if the morsels are large, the stomach is everted, and the food digested outside the animal, the stomach being finally drawn back into the body. At the tip of each ray is a small red spot, the eye, which may give the animal the perception of light and shade. A small nerve can be traced from this spot, along the lower side of the arm to a nervous ring surrounding the mouth.* Recent. * As each arm contains special branches of all the necessary organs, the Star-fish can endure severe mutilation. Lost arms are replaced, and even single arms will live and finally develop into complete Stars. All the Star-fishes, of 20 BRANCH ECHINODERMATA. FIG. 29. Astt'ri as forbes'il. Star-fish. E, Eye-spot. C, Coral plate. 8. Ambulacra! suckers which on the arm toward the right are attached to a small stick. experiments have also demonstrated the presence of a sense of smell. The water, which is taken in to expand the ambulacral suckers, or tentacles, enters through a brick-red sieve, the coral-opiate. The Pacific coast of North America furnishes several varieties of Star-fishes differing from A.forbesii in size, and also in the number of their arms, some having six arms, while other allied genera have more than twenty arms and attain to the diameter of three feet and upward. which there are at least one hundred and fifty species, have the power of disin- tegrating themselves, especially the many-branched varieties, and of restoring in a brief time the portions broken off. Hence, when fishermen vent their spite upon them for stealing their bait, by tearing them in pieces and throwing them overboard, they simply multiply the evil. Immersed in fresh cold water, they die instantly, CLASS ECHINOIDEA. FIG. 30. O1 As troph'ft tan a gas sis' 'm i. Basket-fish. The Basket-fish represents species having the five rays subdivided till the number of ultimate branches is nearly five thousand. CLASS ECHINOIDEA (ek i noid'e a). ORDER CIDARIDEA (si dar Id'e a) The Sea-urchins differ from other Echinoderms, in having the calcareous plates so firmly united with each other, that all motion between them is precluded. The investing shell, thus formed, is perforated with numer- ous pores, through which ambulacral suckers can be thrust, enabling the animal to move about. Protective spines are invariably present, in some species number- ing more than a thousand. 22 KHANCH ECHIXODKHMATA. FIG. 31. Stron gy lo c?n'fr5 tus dro bach- i en' sis. Sea urchin, the am- bulacral suckers appearing as the long filaments, far out- reaching the protective spines. The common Urchin of the North Atlantic coast is of about the size and shape, and has the general ap- pearance of a chestnut bur. It moves about on the rocks, gathering vege- table incrustations from their surface by means of its five sharp teeth, or- gans with which we have not hith- erto met. These are worked by thirty- five powerful muscles. ORDER CLYPEASTRIDEA (klip e as trid'e a). The Sea-otter departs somewhat from the five-rayed structure of the previous mem- bers of this branch. While an imaginary line might be drawn across the Star-fish, through the coral-plate and the arm which in Fig. 27 is toward the right, dividing the animal into two equal por- tions; the Sea -otter has a more obvious right side equal- ing a left side, a structure characterized by the term "bi- lateral symmetry." FIG. 32. Schiz as' ter. Sea-otter, viewed from the lower side. O, Mouth. S, Openings through which are thrust the ambulacral suckers. CLASS HOLOTHUBOIDEA (hoi o thu roid'e a). The HOLOTHURIANS (hoi o ti-m'ri anz), called Sea-cucu 1 1 1 -- bers because of their peculiar form, are regarded as the highest of the Echinoderms. Though they depart con- CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA. 23 siderably from the forms hitherto studied, they exhibit a five-rayed structure in the disposition of their tentacles and also of the rows of ambulacral suckers when these are present. The skin, which is tough and strong, con- tains numerous small calcareous plates.* The body is often elongated, worm-like, and presents a marked bilat- eral symmetry. A good idea of the Holothurian can be obtained by conceiving a Sea-urchin to be drawn out from its attach- ment and then laid down on its side. Five, branched, retractile tentacles, which are of use in collecting small plants and animals, and forcing them into the mouth, take the place of the Urchin's teeth, while the hard shell and long spines have disappeared. ORDER APODA (ap'6 da). Synapta (sin ap'ta) is a form found along the Atlantic coast, and from its movements, is ordinarily mistaken for a worm. Its body is generally elongated and hidden away in subterranean passages in the mud. It feeds by swallowing sand in large quantities, leav- ing the digestive organs to gather from it what nutriment it may contain. f FIG. 33. Syr) ap'ta gi rard'l i. GirarcTs Sea-cu- cumber. A shortened individual. (Nat- ural size.) A, The "anchor and plate." (Greatly magnified.) * These often take a definite form, as of " anchors," " wheels," etc. t Holothurians have a most singular habit, when alarmed, of throwing out from their bodies portions of their alimentary tract. This may be a strange provision for their protection, since a preying fish would seize iipon these softer morsels, leaving the tough skin, which finally re- places the lost parts. Synapta, possibly for a like purpose, often divides itself into numerous segments by violently mntracting. BRANCH VERMES. BRANCH VERMES (ver'mez). WORMS, ETC. This branch includes animals presenting the most di- verse peculiarities, and hence is difficult of precise defini- tion. The body, however, is bilateral, and either entire, or divided into segments by transverse rings. Lateral appendages may be present, but are never jointed. Rep- resentatives are found on land, in water, both salt and fresh, and as parasites on members of nearly every branch of the Animal Kingdom. Though several classes have been defined, we shall consider only the more important. CLASS PLATYHELMINTHES (plat I el mm'thez). The so-called FLAT WORMS have the body depressed and more or less elongated. Some representatives are free ; others are parasitic. ORDER DENDROCCELA (den dro se'la). FIG. 34. 0- The Planarians (pla na'ri anz) are the most common free Platyhelminthes, and are found in abundance gliding over the rocks of slowly running streams. If one of these animals be placed in a tumbler of water, its singular motions and peculiar structure can be observed. In the form most likely to be captured, there will be noticed a pair of dark dots, the eyes,' on the an- terior portion of the body, which is more or less diamond-shaped when the animal is stretched to its utmost. The mouth will be seen on the lower surface, placed far back and leading Pla nn'n a tm-'va. Planarian Worm. 0, Mouth. E, Eye. CLASS PLATYHELM1NTHES. 25 into a branched stomach. The peculiar gliding motion is the result of the combined action of invisible cilia. Though at first glance, the structure of this animal may appear quite new to us, by comparing it with the Anemone, we find several resemblances. If the latter animal be inverted, its tentacles retracted, and its body made capable of movement by being provided with cilia, we should have a. very fair Planarian. The worm also shows ccelenterate features, in that it is armed with lasso- like cells, which it throws out on being irritated ; and in sometimes multiplying by self-division. Though many .Planarians of the warmer countries are terrestrial, all of our forms, with a single exception, are aquatic. The remaining Flat Worms are mostly parasitic ; that is, they attach themselves to some larger animal, their host, from which they draw their nourishment. When animals thus become parasitic, they are apt to lose, through disuse, many organs, which a free life would render quite necessary. Nature is thus found to be economical, never supporting useless organs. ORDER TREMATODA (trem a to'da). The Liver Fluke, nearly an inch in length, broad and flat, is one of the most common parasites. It is found in the bile-duct and other organs of herbivorous animals. Subsisting there on the fluid in which it floats, it has no need of eyes nor of special means of protection, hence these are not present. It is, however, pro- vided with two suckers, ventrally placed, surrounded by a suck- ing disk. .4. Alimen- With Which it holds tO its host. tary tract. S, Ventral rm T-e i j J.T i sucking disk. (Eu- The life history of this animal is of BRANCH VERMES. particular interest. While still attached in one' of the bile-ducts, it constantly sets free a multitude of eggs, which follow the duct to the intestine, from whence some finally reach damp earth or pools. There they hatch and give rise to active little eyed forms, which, on coming in contact with the soft parts of certain snails, thrust themselves through the skin and become encysted. After some time, one of these cysts may break open, as the snail crawls over the grass, and give birth to not one, but several active forms, each of which en- cysts on a blade of grass. A sheep, grazing, swallows the encysted animal, which the di- gestive juices bring into activity, and we finally have the completed cycle in the adult Fluke, which produces in sheep the disorder popularly known as " rot." M - " ~ a o - X II ORDER CESTODA (ses to'da). The Tape-worms also belong to this class. Several species of these worms are found in the intestines of various animals. Here we meet with a parasite, even more degraded than the Fluke. As the animal floats in the digested matter of the alimentary tract, it takes in its nourishment by absorption through the skin of its body. No mouth is present, though there is usually a number of hooks, and in some species, suckers, on the anterior portion of the body, the "head," by which it remains attached. Behind the head, and stretching back, in some forms for twelve feet, is the flat ribbon-like and jointed body, constantly CLASS XKMATHKLMINTHES. 27 elongating by the interposition of new joints next the "head." The older terminal joints are in the meantime falling off. Each of these can move about, and contains a multitude of eggs, which escape to the outer world. The omnivorous hog, perchance, devours some of these eggs ; in its stomach, they hatch, and the young worms distribute themselves through their host, become encysted, and we have what is called "measly pork." These cysts, on opening in the alimentary tract of the animal which has eaten, infected meat, give birth to small Tape-worms, which at once attach themselves to their new host. CLASS NEMATHELMINTHES (nem at el min'thez). If cider vinegar be closely examined with a hand lens, it will be found to contain a myriad of small active worms, popularly called Vinegar Eels. A description of the anatomy of one of these will epitomize that of the class. ORDER NEMATODA (nem a to'da). The body of the Vinegar Eel is round and filiform (fil'i form) ; the alimentary canal extends as a tube, from FIG. 3". Lep tod'e ra ox oph'i la. Vinegar Eel. (Greatly magnified.1 the anteriorly placed mouth for nearly the entire length of the body; on each side, can often be distinguished a multitude o'f eggs. Though many members of this class live, like the Vinegar Eel, a free life, others are para- sitic. The Trichina ctri ki'na) is by far the most dreaded of human parasites. By eating raw or poorly cooked pork, 28 BRANCH VKKMKS. FIG. Trichl'na spira'lis. Migrating in muscles. Encysted. (Greatly magnified.') as is often done with ham and Bologna sausage, encysted worms are taken into the alimentary tract, where the digestive fluids break the cysts, and free the animals, which deposit a multitude of eggs. These eggs soon hatch, and the young TrichinaB work their way through the tissues and migrate to nearly every part of the body ; but finally settle down and become encysted in the muscles, in capsules about fo of an inch long, where they remain indefinitely. If the host can endure the irritation produced by this migration, fatal results will not follow. The Hair-worms, which are found in damp soil and in stagnant water, are forms closely allied to the Trichina. The Gordius (gor'di us) often resembles a long hair from a horse's mane, and being found in the water, is considered by the ignorant to be an animated hair, which will finally develop into an eel. The young of Hair-worms are often found parasitic in small aquatic animals. CLASS ANNELIDA (an nel'i da). This class includes the higher developed segmented Vermes : the Earth-worms, Sea-worms, and Leeches. The body is elongated, and traversed for its entire length by the alimentary tract. The nervous system consists of a brain proper, placed over the oc.sophaguH (the anterior por- tion of the alimentary tract), round which, on each side, FIG. 39. Gdr'ffi Us a quat'\ cue. Hair-worm. CLASS AN NK LI DA. 29 FIG. 40. a nervous cord passes, connecting with a ventral chain of nervous ganglia. The most noticeable feature, however, is the regular series of segments, each of which has its own nervous center, circulatory organ, respiratory (re spir'a to ry) system, and, when such are present, organs of locomotion. It is not surprising, then, that when such an animal is divided, the parts continue to show life for some time after the mutilation. ANNELIDS (an' rie 1 idz) are found in damp soil, and in both fresh and salt water. ORDER OLIGOCH/ETA (o IT go ke'ta) The common Angle or Earth-worm is abundantly found in the loamy soil of both continents. In tunneling, it swal- lows the dirt, leaving the alimentary tract to select what little organic matter may be contained. Along each side of the body are rows of small spines, of use in holding to the walls of its tunnel ; these can be felt if the animal be al- lowed to crawl between the fingers. This worm is nocturnal in its habits. It re- quires moisture, dying in a short time if exposed to the sun's rays. Extreme cold it can not endure ; but during winter, it sinks below the frost line and, with several companions, remains coiled up until the advent of spring. Besides its ordinary diet, it is known not infrequently to attack vegetables and even refuse meat. Whenever feeding, however, it inva- riably disposes of the worthless matter by throwing it out as spiral casts on the surface, at the mouth of its a, Lum'bn ens terres'- trif. Angle or Earth- worm, c. Egg, inclos iug two young, d, Es- cape of young from egg. 30 BRANCH VEKMES. tunnel. This bringing up from below and depositing on the surface, results in a constant overturning and enrich- ing of the soil. It also undermines, at a rate perhaps of an inch in a dozen years, pieces of stone and other debris, which are thus constantly disappearing from the surface. Its eggs are deposited in the soil and develop directly into Earth-worms. ORDER POLYCH/ETA (pol I ke'ta). Many of the Marine-worms (Nereis) have the_ append- ages of the sides of each segment greatly enlarged, with expansions which functionize as gills, and with tufts of elongated bristles. The Clam-worm, so named because it FIG. 41. Ne'ra is pelag'i ca. Clam-worm, a, Male. 6, Female. (Natural size.) is often brought to light where these mollusks are being dug, well illustrates such a form. The head is quite dis- tinct, surrounded with long feeling organs, the an/a/t/ti- (an ten'ne), and bears one or more pair of eyes. From the mouth can be protruded a long proboscis, which is armed with terminal teeth and secures the animal's prey, finally drawing it into the stomach. With such well- developed and specialized organs, we should expect to find the Clam-worm an active animal, and such it is. At night, it is -known to leave its submarine and sub- CLASS AXNKL1DA. 31 terranean tunnels, come to the surface of the water, and there swim about. Some species reach eighteen inches in length. The famous Autolytus (a tol'i tus) is also a marine Annelid, and a closely related form. The young of this animal have a general resemblance to the Clam-worm, though they are of much smaller size. After the worm FIG. 42. Au tbl' y tus cor nu' tus, subdividing into two individuals. wanders about for some time, one of its middle segments begins to take on the appearance and structure of a head and the posterior part of a body, and finally breaks away, a complete animal, free to move about and to de- posit eggs. These eggs will produce other worms, which will, in their turn, go through the same process of self- division. ORDER DISCOPHORI (clis kof'o rl). The Leeches generally have the mouth surrounded by a sucking disk, while there is also a similar disk on the posterior end of the body. Dissection reveals a metam- erous (me tam'er us) (in parts or segments) arrangement, for the digestive, nervous, and excretory systems. The Leeches used in medicine, are imported from France, where they are raised in large numbers.* The mouth is * The Leeches grown in our own waters, especially the genus that furnishes the large variety, serve also for medicinal purposes ; and, if baited by applying a little blood to the inflamed part, will attach themselves as readily as the imported ones. When gorged, they let go their hold of their own accord. If then a little salt be put upon their sucking disk, they at once disgorge themselves and are again ready for service. 32 BRANCH YERMKS, provided with three small lance-like teeth, which readily puncture the patient's skin, causing a painless flow of PIG 43 blood. During the warmer months, they o crawl from the water and deposit their eggs in the moist mud. These in a few days hatch, the young at once seeking the water. Several allied forms inhabit our fresh-water ponds and streams. \ v We now come to a few worm-like animals, the precise relations of which are not settled. The Polyzoa (poi I zo'a), and Brachiopods (brak'i o podz), though generally classified with the Avorms, present affinities with higher forms, and are regarded by some naturalists as belonging to a separate Branch, the MOLLUSCOIDEA (mol lus koi'de a). The Polyzoa, though found in fresh- water, abound in the ocean, where their small calcareous, or horny, capsules form incrustations over nearly every submerged object. These capsules, each of which contains a Polyzoon quite dis- tinct from the others, are often ar- ranged in a branching form, giving the colonies a strong, though superficial, re- semblance to the branching Hydroids. Through the thin wall of the capsule, the structure of the animal can often be determined. The mouth, surrounded by a number of ciliated tentacles, opens into an elongated and complete alimentary tract, through the Hi r~(' do me die i n'i'lis. Medicinal Leech, showing chief points in its anat- omy. 0, Mouth. //.s.sv/x, which it- can throw out one after another and then contract them, a slow F JUi/t'ltus e du' Us. Mussel. F, Foot. B, Byssus. CLASS ACEPHALA. 39 movement resulting. The byssus is also of use in at- taching the animal to a support. The Fresh-ivater Clam, FIG. 55. FIG. 54, I mo " p an \- U' '/u o compla na'tus. Fresh-water Bivalve, as it moves through the sand. F, Foot. The arrows indicate the currents of water entering and leav- ing the siphons. closely allied to the Mus- sel, is found in all our lakes, ponds, and rivers. This animal, by means of its elongated foot, plows its way through the mud in shallow water. The young have peculiar hooks on the edges of their valves, by means of which they at- tach themselves to the fins and gills of fishes, where they remain for some little time. The Salt-water Clam has the siphons united and greatly elongated, enabling My' a arena'ria. Common Clam, with left valve and portion of mantle removed, showing the more general anatomical peculiarities, i, Ar- row showing course taken by water as it enters the siphon (s) and bathes the gills, g and y'. Food is directed to the mouth, mo, l>y the palps, p, the water finally leaving the animal through the excurrent opening, e. w. Mantle, with an opening at o, for the foot,/, to protrude. The fleshy body is seen at b. the ligament at /, and the anterior and posterior adductor muscles at aa, and pa. 40 BRANCH MOLLUSCA. FIG. 57. FIG. 56. So'len in' sis. Razor-clam Shell. it, though buried several inches in the mud, to draw in clear water, which alone it covets. The Razor-clam is found on sandy beaches. Its foot is capable of being greatly elongated and of insinuat- ing itself into the sand for several inches. It is then distended with water, form- ing a hole, into which the remainder of the animal can be drawn. The eye-spots of the Razor-clam are placed upon the siphons. The Ship -worm is the most aberrant (ab er'rant) of bivalves, and causes a yearly damage of thousands of dollars. The young of this animal is a free swim- mer, but soon comes to rest on some Sd'len Sri sis. Razor-clam. Te r2' do no, va' Its. Ship-worm. S, Siphons. B, Elongated body. C, Rudimentary shell. submerged timber, as the exposed hull of a ship, or the spiles of a bridge. Into this the animal bores, and in a short time forms long calcareous tunnels, which, while CLASS CEPHALOPHORA. never intersecting those of its neighbors, quickly destroys the strongest timber. Its valves are very small, cover- ing only a limited portion of the anterior part of the body. CLASS CEPHALOPHORA (sef a lof 6 ra). To this class belong mollusks which are generally capable of locomotion, moving about on their so-called foot. Placed anteriorly is FIG. 59. the head, which generally bears tentacles and eyes, and is pierced by the open- ing of the mouth. The ali- mentary tract is well devel- oped, and bears anteriorly a series of characteristic teeth, the odontophore (o don'16 phor).* Though in many forms the body is protected by the investing mantle only, the greater number have a single hard, limy shell, into which they can partly or wholly contract. Representatives are found in the ocean, in fresh-water, and on land. Some, therefore, are obliged to breathe air, and are consequently provided with lungs. The present class has been designated by several names : CEPHALOPHORA in that they bear a head ; UNI- VALVES (u'nl valvz), because of the single valved shell ; and GASTEROPODS (gas'ter 6 podz), because the foot sup- ports a portion of the alimentary tract. F L Diagrammatic view of Cephalophorous Mollusk, showing main points in its anatomy. 0, Mouth, leading into the elongated alimentary tract, which has opening into it, the duct from, L. the Liver. Sg, The supra o?sophageal, or cephalic ganglion, connected by nervous rings with, Ig< the infra-oesophageal and, Pg, the pedal ganglia. F, Foot or creeping diek. S, Shell ff, Heart, the space surrounding which is in communication with the exterior through the tube, T. * Compare with, teeth of Clam-worm, page 30, '1 BRANCH MOLLUSI .\. ORDER SCAPHOPODA (skaf o po'da). The Tooth-shell is one of the lowest forms, and, in Fm . 60 . many points of its structure, resem- bles the Acephals. The shell, long Dent//<>//, the reaction pushing the mollusk in the opposite direction, often with great velocity. ORDER TETRABRANCHIATA (tet ra brang ke a'ta). The Pearly Nautilus (na'ti ids), of the Indian Ocean, is the introductory form. The shell of this animal is found to consist of a series of chambers, ar- ranged in a spiral, all connecting by a siphun- cle (si'fungkkl) with the ultimate and larger one, which contains the ani- mal. These shells often measure six inches in diameter, and when pol- ished, are very orna- mental. The animal has two pairs of gills and numerous arms, which, however, are rather small and un- provided with suckers. Nautili and allied forms, the Ammonites (am'mon Ttz), have peopled the seas since the earliest times; but, though more than two thousand fossil species of this order have been described by Nat- uralists, only six survive at the present time ; and these all belong to the genus Nautilus, the sole living repre- sentative of what was once a "mighty race." Nau'filus pompil'i us. Pearly Nautilus. ('.) Sec- tion showing chambers and eiphuncle. JH, Mantle. E, Eye. S, Siphon. T, Tentacles. C, Chambers. , Siphuncle. CLASS CEPHALOPODA. FIG. 71. ORDER DIBRANCHIATA (di brang ke a'ta). The "two-gilled" Cephalopods have the shell, when present, internal, and either calcareous or horny. When horny, it is long and pen-like, supporting the body. An ink-bag is invariably present, the contents of which the animal, on being frightened, ejects, as a cloud, into the water, to hide its escape. The body is often capa- ble of rapidly changing its color. The Argonauts (ar'go nats) are so called from the fabulous ac- count of their using their delicate shell as a boat, some of their tentacles as oars, and others expanded, as sails. Though the male is shelless, the much larger female secretes a delicate unchambered shell, in which she rests and where she deposits her eggs, but to which she is not attached, holding it merely, and swimming rapidly about by forcibly ejecting water through her siphon. The Octopus (ok'to ptts), instead of being found in deep seas like the Argonaut, inhabits the rocky shores. This animal, often called the Devil Fish, and about which the most blood-curdling stories have been told, is realty of a timid and retiring disposition. The body is short and oval, while the arms are elongated and provided below Ar go nau'ta ar'go. Paper Argonaut. BRANCH MOLLUSCA. with two rows of sucking disks. Bawd's Octopus has been captured several times off the New England coast. PIG. 72. (Jc'topus ml g,i ns. Devil lish, or Poulpe. A larger Pacific form is known to devour great quantities of Acephalous Mollusks. The Cuttle-fish and Squids, the most active inverte- brates, have, in addition to the eight arms, a pair of longer arms, provided at their extremities only with suckers.* * These monsters of the deep have furnished material for the novelist and the painter. See Victor Hugo's " Toilers of the Sea," and Harper's Magazine, Vol. XXI, page 185. Their accounts are greatly exaggerated. Mr. Beale, in his Natural History of the Sperm-whale, describes a specimen of the so-called "Hock-squid," not larger than his fist, but with arms expanding four feet. He grasped one of its tentacles, but the cuttle-fish held to the rock with its suckers so strongly as to resist all his strength. A sudden jerk exasperated the animal, which fixed its CLASS CEPHALOPODA. 49 Fm. 73. FIG. 74. The Cuttle-fish is common along the shores of the Mediterranean, where large numbers are captured for food, for their ink, which is made into the pigment sepia (se'pl a), and for their supporting, calcareous shell. Allied are the Squids, some of which grow to an enormous size. A specimen was lately found on the Newfound- land Coast, whose body measured over seven feet in length, while the arms extended for thirty feet. These animals are carniv- orous, devouring large numbers of fish, as well as other mollusks. Mi- grating in schools, multitudes are de- stroyed by the whales and other ma- rine animals. Along our shores they Pen, or Back- bone of Squid. Lo li' go peale' i 1. Anatomy of a Cephalopod Mol- lusk, Squid. T, Tentacles, bearing their rows of suckers. O, Mouth. F, Siphon. In, Intestine. /, Ink-bag. B, Gills. H, Heart. K, Blood- vessel. Is, Sac, which re- ceives the impure blood as it returns from the body. Fi Visceral sac. C, Lobes of tail. Fis. 75. Lo&'go bar tram' 'I i. Squid, Atlantic. (J.) often become stranded, and perish in their efforts to again reach the water. glaring eyes upon its tormentor and, suddenly releasing its hold, sprang upon his naked arm and endeavored to reach him with its beak. Its slimy grasp sickened, while its threatening look so alarmed him that he loudly called for assistance. His release was at last effected only by killing the cuttle-fish with the boat-hook, and cutting off its arms bit by bit. 50 BRANCH ARTHROPODA. BRANCH ARTHROPODA (&r thr6 P -6 da). INSECTS AND CRUSTACEANS. The AKTHROPODS (ar'thro podz) differ from the jointed, bilaterally symmetrical animals, which we have hitherto studied, in having the appendages jointed,* and the body protected by a hard external shell, f which is generally divided into regions, each of which has special duties to perform. J Locomotion is effected by the jointed appendages, FlG . 7(; . which allow the body Abdo,,,. Head. to progress without the flexions so charac- teristic of the worms. The nervous system consists of a brain, situated in the head, connected with a chain of ventral gan- glia by means of an oesophageal (e so fag'e ai) ring. The alimentary tract is entirely separated from the body cavity, while the circu- latory system is more or less imperfect. The blood, generally colorless, on leaving the dorsally situate heart, passes through lacunce (la ka'ne) (open spaces in the body cavity) before it again enters regular blood-vessels on its return. * Compare appendages of Clam-worm. t A rigid support is necessary for the attachment of the muscles which serve in flying, jumping, or swimming. t The head bears the mouth parts and some of the special sense organs; the eyes, and antennae : the thorax (tho 1 rax) supports the organs of locomotion : the abdomen (ab do' men), generally without appendages, is of use in carrying the eggs. An Arthropod Animal. Young Lobster, showing the division of the body into head, thorax, or head-thorax, and abdomen. (Enlarged.) CLASS CRUSTACEA. 51 CLASS CRUSTACEA (krtts ta'she a). The CRUSTACEANS often have the integument (in teg'u- ment) hardened by the deposition of limy matter. They are mainly aquatic, and hence breathe by means of gills. There are two pairs of antennae, and the abdomen, as well as the thorax, may bear appendages. Though, on emerging from the egg, the young may resemble, in form, the adult, more often they are born in the Nau- plius (na'pli us) stage, only becoming adults through a series of metamorphoses (met a mor'pho sez). The Nau- plius is of small size, free swimming, but provided with only three pairs of appendages, these finally developing into the two pairs of antennae and the single pair of jaws. ORDER COPEPODA (ko pe'po da). The common Copepod (ko'pe pod), Cyclops (si'kiops) is a familiar representative of FIG. 77. the group Entomostraca (en- to mos'tra ka), in which many of the smaller crustaceans, with appendages varying in number, are included. This small white speck is seen swimming with a jerking mo- tion in nearly every tumbler of unfiltered water. If a large specimen be examined with a Ct/'dops commnn'is. Nauplius of Cyclops. hand lens, a pair of sacs, filled with eggs, will be found to hang from each side of the abdomen. On hatching from these eggs, the young are in the "nauplius stage." 52 BRANCH ARTHROPODA. Fm. 78. ORDER SIPHONOSTQMATA (si foil o stom'a ta). The Fish-louse also comes from the egg as a Nauplius. The adult females are provided with a grapple, by means of which they become attached to their hosts, losing finally, in their parasitic life, all trace of segmentation, becom- ing mere bags for retaining the juices of their host, and nourishing the large sacs of eggs, which are seen attached at the sides. E Lern ^^ O1> ^^ ers. These soon hatch, and the larvae begin their paths, always, however, keep- ing themselves covered in a case, made from the material on which they feed. Thus covered, they undergo their transformation. The Tent Caterpillar Moth deposits her eggs in a band around the twig of some fa- vorite tree. These hatch in April or May, and the young form a silken tent, in which they remain, until forced by hunger to crawl forth in search of food, leaving behind a trailing thread, which they follow back to their habita- tion on relieving their hunger. Few birds molest them. The SilJwvorm, a most valuable insect, is regarded PIG, 130. ja o rntr i cs/'na. Tent Caterpillar. Eggs, Larva, Imago. CLASS HEX A POD A. 77 FIG. 131. in quite a different light. Originally from China, it now thrives in all the warmer countries. A single cocoon has been known to yield a strand of silk one thousand feet in length.* The second group of Lepidopterous insects in- cludes those which are gen- erally diurnal (di ur'nal), have the antennae knobbed at their extremities, and when at rest, elevate the wings so that their upper surfaces are juxtaposed (placed close together). The larvae never spin a co- coon in which to undergo their metamorphosis, but suspend themselves in some convenient manner, being covered with a hard shell. The imago of the Cab- huge Butterfly is familiar to all as the light straw- colored Butterfly, with dark markings, seen dur- ing the warmer months flitting along the road- side, or over our garden- plats. The larvae of this and kindred species do great harm in our vegetable gardens, occasioning the loss of thousands of dollars annually. Bbm'byx mo' n. Silk-worm Moth and Cocoon. FIG. 132. Pll'ris olera'ce.a. Cabbage Butterfly and Pupa. * Tradition has it that the Silk-worm was smuggled into Europe, about the middle of the sixth century, by monks who concealed them in their walking-staves. 78 BRANCH ARTHROPOD A. ORDER HYMENOPTERA (hi men op'te ra). The members of this order have two pairs of mem- branous wings, resembling those of the Neuroptera, though they lack the complicated reticulate venation (ve na'shun). The mouth-parts are well developed and formed for both biting and sucking. The metamorphosis is complete, the young not resembling the adult. As the female is generally provided with a sting, situate at the posterior end of the body, the abdomen is often con- stricted anteriorly to a mere pedicel, giving great freedom of motion to its termination. The Saw-flies are often very destructive to all forest and shade trees. The female having, with her ovipositor, sawed a slit in a leaf or twig of her favorite tree, deposits therein several FIG. 134. Nem' a (us ven tri co' sux. Saw-fly and Larva. eggs, where the young hatches in the midst of plenty. When these larvae, which strikingly resemble the young of many Lepidoptera, are full grown, they spin for themselves silken co- coons, in which they undergo their transformations. t'i/n'ips guer' cusfo'li i. Gall-fly. The Q-all-flies are of very similar habits, though differ- CLASS HEXAPODA. 79 FIG. 135. ing in that the twig or leaf in which the eggs are de- posited at once begins an abnormal, though characteristic growth, the so-called "galls." The common Oak-apple well illustrates such a gall. Many of the Gall-flies, like the Aphides, are parthenogenetic. The Ichneumon-flies (Ik nu'mon), though often microscopic in size, are most valuable as Nature's checks to the inordinate multiplication of other insects. The female searches, until she finds her favorite larva, beneath the skin of which, with her delicate ovipositor, she thrusts several eggs. Ich mu'mon man ifes '/I' tor. Ichneumon-fly. FIG. 136. These, on hatching, feed on the fatty tissues of their host, not attacking the vitals, until they are about to pupate. The unfortunate host thus not only supplies its parasites with food while they live, but finally re- linquishes to them its body, as a sup- port in which they are able to undergo their transformations.* The common Ants, Wasps, and Bees, excepting the Pseu- doneuropterous White Ants, in their intellectual develop- * Few larval insects are free from the attacks of Ichneumons. The "grubs" on the inside of solid trees are reached, as are those in the ground, and those under water. Even the larvae of Ichneumons, living as pai*asites, may play the part of hosts to other parasitic Ichneumons, which may in turn he the hosts of a third species of this most interesting group. Ichneumon-fly, depositing its eggs in the larvn.- at bottom of the holes. 80 BRANCH ARTHROPODA. FIG. 137. merit are far in advance of other invertebrate animals. An embryo colony of Ants con- sists of one or several queens, whose sole office is to perpet- uate the species by laying eggs. From early spring, until late in the fall, these eggs produce young. The young are without wings, but are provided with strong jaws, and do general work, and in case of invasion, are the fighters ; they are hence soldiers." Finally, the eggs Female Male $ , and Worker of Brown Ant. and called the "workers" produced late in the season, produce winged males and females, which leave their homes in swarms in the spring. The males, however, soon die, and the fe- males descend to the ground, tear off their wings, and endeavor either to establish new colonies, or re- turn to their birth- place.* * Observation has shown that many, if not all, Ants have a language, though just how they communicate their ideas is not known. The Honey Ants of the Rocky Mountains, from Colorado to Mexico, are peculiar in that in times of -plenty some a, Egg. 6, Larva, c, Pupa of Ants, d, PonZ' ra gran' dis, Giant Ant. F, Fdr'mica sanguin'Z a, Red Ant Iia food as they enter the mouth and leave me nted Cartilaginous rod, the the Bpiuacular opening. E, Eye. so-called notochord (no' to kord), over which extends the nervous system, and below which is the alimentary tract, a general structure, resembling that of the young frog. After this stage, however, the Tunicate becomes sedentary, retrogrades, and finally loses all vertebrate peculiarities. All the remaining animals may be spoken of as Vertebrates proper. CLASS ACBANIA (a kra'ni a). The little AMPHIOXUS (am n ox' us), or LANCELET (lans'iet), has long been regarded as a vertebrate animal. It is small and lanceolate in form, seldom exceeding two inches in length. It is generally found buried in the sand of the CLASS ACRANIA. 87 warmer seas, though it not infrequently swims about with a wriggling motion. On examining the structure of the animal, we find that its supporting skeleton con- sists chiefly of a slender notochord, running from head to tail. Above this is the nervous system, slightly enlarged anteriorly, where it bears a single eye-spot. Below, and in front, is a large mouth, surrounded by tentacles, which leads into a chamber, the pharynx (far'- ingks), from the posterior end of which extends the FIG. 149. s Branch ios' to ma Ian ceo la' turn. Amphioxus, or Lancelot, enlarged. E, Eye. JV, Notochord. B, Branchial slits. L, Liver. 6', Nervous system. The arrows indicate the entrance and exit of water. oesophagus, which connects with the stomach. Water taken into the pharynx finds its exit through numerous lateral slits, the separations between which are richly supplied with blood-vessels, coming from a ventrally placed pulsating organ. In these supporting arches, the blood is purified by coming so near the water that its impure gases escape, and the free oxygen (ox'ljen) in the water is taken in. These arches are then used for breathing, and we can speak of them as the gill, or branchial, arches. The outer openings of the slits are covered by a fold of skin which forms a chamber around them, having a single external pore. The specimen which is represented in the figure, is from the Mediter- ranean ; but one species, less studied, is found in Amer- ican waters. Six species in all are enumerated by some naturalists. 88 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. CLASS CYCLOSTOMA (si klo sto'ma). The CIRCULAR-MOUTHED VERTEBRATES have a cartilagi- nous skeleton, naked skin, and no lower jaw. It is here that we first meet with organs of special sense, con- structed on the same plan as those of man, well-de- veloped eyes, internal ears, and a nasal sac. ORDER HYPEROARTIA (hi per o ar'ti a). The Lamprey (lam'pre) is found in both salt and fresh water. Its mouth is simply a circular sucking-cup, armed FIG. 150. FIG 151. Pe trom' ty zon mari'nus. Lamprey. JV, Nasal orifice. with numerous teeth. The tongue, working like a piston, produces a vacuum by which the animal adheres to any object. If attached to a fish, its wasp- like teeth enable it to scrape off the flesh for food ; if to a stone, assisted by the current, it can drag away quite large ones from the spot it has chosen for its nest. Circulation is effected by means of a heart, the impure blood from the body entering a single auricle (a'ri ki), and from thence being poured into a muscular ventricle, which forces it over the body by way of the gills. These are bathed by water, which may enter Mouth of Lamprey. CLASS ELASMOBItANCHII. 89 through the mouth, or, when this is occupied, through the round openings along the sides, out of which it is also allowed to escape. CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII (e las mo brang'kl I). The strap-gilled fishes have four or five pairs of long gill openings. Their skeleton is cartilaginous, skin rough, and the tail lobes are of unequal length (heterocercal) (het er o ser'kal). It is in this class, we first meet with animals having two pairs of appendages ; the anterior (the pectoral) (pek'to rai), and the posterior (the pelvic) (pel'vik). ORDER SQUALI (skwa'll). The Sharks are the butchers and scavengers of the ocean. They follow ships pertinaciously, swallowing greedily any thing thrown overboard.* Their teeth are FIG. 152. Sphf/r'na, zy ffce'nus. Hammer-headed Shark. ( 5 \;.) Shark's Teeth. JV 7 ; Nasal orifice. * On slow-sailing merchant-ships, shark-fishing is a favorite pastime. A recent account says : " I was holding the heavy hook and wire rope over the side, when I felt that I had caught a big fish, and pulling it cautiously, a shark came to the surface. I called out for help. He struggled so violently, lashing the water with his tail and trying to bite the hook asunder, that we were obliged to keep dipping 90 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. in numerous rows, held by strong skin upon the rounded edge of the jaws ; but only the outer row stands per- pendicularly and can be used. As fast as any drop out from wear or fracture, inner ones move forward to take their place. The H , . /> -, -, i configuration of bone and muscle in denizens of the land and atmosphere, gives to each species a different gait, or mode of flight. CLASS TELEOSTEI. FIG. 162. 95 An gull' la vulg JM 07 Striped Snake. and Puffing Snakes are also members of this harmless class, as is also the so-called "Adder." The Boas of the New and the Pythons of the Old World, are also without poison apparatus. These are the largest Ophidians, though they seldom exceed a length of fifteen feet. They are found in the tropics, often near some pool, over which they suspend themselves, being aided in this by their rudimentary hind limbs, which appear at the base of the tail as a pair of spurs. When an ani- mal, like a small dog, for instance, comes to drink, the reptile seizes and cjuickly wraps several coils of its body 114 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 195. Bo' a an a con' da. around it, thus crushing its bones and strangling it almost instantly. The process of deglutition (deg lu ti'shun) is now begun, the head being first seized by the snake, whose teeth, all pointing backward, and whose jaws successively and alternately pushed forward and drawn back, thus actually pull the snake over the animal. It is an interesting fact, that the female Python 7 / (pi'thun), after depositing her eggs, coils herself around them, while the heat of her body increases and the eggs, like those of a hen, are incubated. The Coral Snakes, of the more southern states, though generally inoffensive, are nevertheless armed with poison fangs, grooved rather than tu- bular. The East Indian Cobra (ko'bra) has a venomous bite, which is estimated to cause the death of 5,000 people annually. By means of elongated ribs, it expands, when irritated, a broad area on its neck, called the "hood."* * A perfectly harmless snake, closely resembling the Cobra in general form, color, and habits, is often used by the so-called snake charmers, who of course handle it with impunity, pretending to throw it into a lethargy and bring it out at will. When the Cobra is used, it is probable that its fangs are first re- moved. " The reptile drawn from its cage, immediately swells its neck, extends its forked tongue, and begins to hiss. The charmer striking up a monotonous song, opposes his clenched fist to his enemy, which fixes its glittering eyes upon jt and follows all its movements, thus keeping up a kind of dance," FIG. 10(i. cor ai w- na. Coral Snake. CLASS REPTILIA. 115 The Sea Snakes inhab- it the Pacific and Indian oceans, and are venomous, though, owing to the fact | that when removed from the water they are inca- pable of seeing well, they are not considered dan- gerous. Living a pelagic life, their body is compressed and posteriorly forms a broad paddle-like tail. Rattlesnakes have on the end of the tail a series of horny enlargements, loosely attached to each other, which, when shaken, make a buzzing noise. Each slough may leave several new buttons, while the end ones are dropping off from wear ; hence the num- ber is no indication of age. The Copper-head, Moccasin (mok'ka sin), etc., are venom- ous snakes belonging to this family. They are more dangerous than the Rat- tlesnake, as they give no warning.* * On being bitten by an un- known snake, the wound should be examined, and if two large punct- ures are not found, there need be little apprehension, If it js found FIG. 197. Sea Snake. FIG. 198. C'ro' td lus hor' ri dus. Rattlesnake. FIG. 199. Skull of Rattlesnake, showing fangs. 116 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 200. Iff H a' nd tu her cu Id' la. Iguana. ( r ' B .) ORDER LACERTIL1A (la ser til'i a). The Lizards are generally provided with two pairs of limbs, and the eyes with movable lids, while the mouth lacks the power of distention, so characteristic of the pre- vious order. External evidence of ears is often exhibited by the tympanic (tim pan' Ik) membrane, as in frogs, or by deep pits each side of the head. With a single exception, the Heloderma (hel o der'ma), all are per- fectly harmless.* The Iguanas (1 gwa'- nas) are arboreal fruit-eating Lizards, found in the West Indies and South America. They often reach a total length of five feet, and are much prized by the natives as food. The " Chameleon " (ka- rri e'le un) of our Southern States is much smaller. It is often seen sunning itself on old fences, on the leaves Of the palmetto, etc. White An' oils pnn tip' a Us. Southern Chameleon. to show the marks of poison fangs, it should be sucked by a person whose mouth and lips are without scratches, the poison being harmless if taken into the ali- mentary tract. The wound should then be enlarged with a knife and again sucked. A tight ligature should be placed between it and the heart, and alcoholic drink administered, though not in large quantities. * Though bearing a superficial resemblance to many salamanders, the Lizards are at once distinguished by their clawed toes, and, with a very few exceptions, scaly skin. Pis. 201. CLASS EEPTILIA. 117 FIG. 202. Phrft nos' 6 ma cor nu' ta. Horned Toad. (}.) is the usual color of the under side ; but the almost in- stantaneous change of color on the upper side, through varying shades of prismatic hue from dark brown to bright green as extremes, has given to this animal its common name in the localities it inhabits. The Horned Toads, of which there are several different species, are found in abundance on our great Western plains, where their somber colors at- tract but little attention. They are in no wise related to the Batrachians, the misnomer being given through a general resemblance on the back to the coloration of the toad. Brought east, they are some- times kept as pets, though the cooler climate often renders them semi-torpid and indifferent to their keepers. The " Glass Snake " is a true lizard, though it is without feet. When irri- tated, it has the peculiar habit of break- ing itself into two or more pieces ; but these pieces do not form new individ- uals, nor do they come together again. While its enemy is seizing these frag- ments, the anterior part of the animal often escapes, finally reproducing the lost parts. It inhabits the Southern States. The Slue-tailed Skink, inhabiting the more central parts of the Union, is often found secreted beneath the bark of some prostrate log, where it lies in wait for some FIG. 203. Oph i sau' rus ven trd' tls. Glass Snake. 118 BEANCH VEETEBEATA. insects. Above it is of a deep glossy green, ornamented with fine yellow lines, passing from the head to the dark blue tail. FIG. 204. FIG. 205. Eu mZ'ces fas ci a,' lus. Blue Tail. The Old World Chameleon is a most slow-going animal, meditating before each movement, and taking hours t<> travel the length of a short branch. It has many struct- ural peculiarities. Its eye-lids, which cover the eye, ad- mit light through a small hole placed in their center. The five toes of each foot are ar- ranged anteriorly with three inside and two outside, while posteriorly the opposite ar- rangement ob- tains. The tail is long and prehen- Chanie'le 5n vulga'ris. Chameleon. sile, and the club-shaped tongue is capable of being quickly protruded to a considerable distance, the viscid tip serving to secure such insects as the animal may need for food. CLASS REPTILIA. 119 1, Tongue of Chameleon. 2, Foot of Chameleon. The Chameleon's power of changing color is remarkable, but its range of variation is much more limited than that of its namesake of our Southern States. ORDER CHELONIA (ke lo'ni a). The members of this order bear a marked resemblance to one another. Every one knows a Turtle. The short, stout body is protected above by a more or less convex FIG. 207. Skeleton of Tortoise.* hard shell, the carapax (kar'a paks), formed by the ex- panded ribs and transverse processes of the dorsal ver- tebrae, and below by a flattened sternal plate, the plastron. From this shell the head and neckf extend anteriorly * The same number of pieces is found in the skeleton as in the ordinary vertebrates, the shape and size alone being changed. t The long, slender muscles which move the flexible neck are tied to the under side of the carapax. When dried they may be capable of producing 120 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 208. and the tail posteriorly, while laterally are the two pairs of well developed limbs. The jaws, like those of a bird, are without teeth and are covered with horn. The Sea Turtles have the feet as broad nippers, adapting them for a pelagic life. At certain seasons, however, they visit the land to lay their eggs, which are deposited in large numbers, two hundred or more, in the sand.* The Green Turtle is the most prized of the edible species, and its eggs are obtained in large quantities. Large sea turtles sometimes weigh a thousand pounds. FIG. 209. Skeleton of a Marine Turtle. Che Id' ni a m^' das. Green Turtle. (>.) musical sounds, and thus have given rise to the poetical legend of the origin of the lyre. * In the Antilles (an tiil' ) and other breeding-places, the turtle is exceedingly valuable. Its eggs are a delicacy ; its flesh is used for food ; its fat for oil and butter ; its carapax for drinking troughs, bathing tubs, canoes, and roofs to the native huts. The shell of some species constitutes the well-known tortoise-shell, a valuable article of commerce. CLASS REPTILIA. 121 The smaller Hawk-bill, with the imbricated plates of its carapax, supplies us with the tortoise-shell of FIG. 210. FIG. 211. E ret mo chl'lys im bri cd' (a. Hawk-billed Turtle. commerce. It is found in the warmer waters of the oceans of both the Eastern and Western hemispheres. The Soft -shelled Turtle lives in our warmer ponds, though, from their retiring habits and their remarkable protective resemblance to their surroundings, they are seldom captured. The cara- pax is an exact counterfeit of a lily leaf as regards shape, flexibility, color, and venation. This form, like many others, can remain long below the surface, by drawing water into its pharynx, lined with append- ages functionizing as gills. It is very ferocious. As pld o nee' tes ft' rox. Soft-shelled Turtle 122 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. &7 FIG. 212. tu'do virginia'na. Box Tortoise. FIG. 213. The Land Tortoises have feet formed only for walking and hence they never enter the water. Their food con- sists of soft plants, as mush- rooms. The River Tortoise is a common North American species. Its sharp - edged jaws are strong enough to bite asunder a stick half an inch in diameter. It is fond of water-fowl, swimming beneath the surface, seizing and quietly dragging them under. About June 10th, in the temperate climates, it lays thirty to fifty spherical eggs. For their reception, a hole is scooped in the sand by the hind feet, and then smoothed over and left. This entire work occupies but fifteen or twenty minutes. The eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun in about three months, when the young imme- diately take to the water. ORDER CROCODILIA (krok o dil'i a). The members of this order inhabit the waters of the warmer countries, and are of considerable size. The feet are powerful, armed with claws and formed for swim- ming, the digits being united with webs. The body is protected by a tough leathery skin, well supplied with hard bony plates. The eggs are deposited in a heap of mud and vegetable matter, which the mother collects, t'kel'&dra serpenfi'na. River Tortoise, " Snapping Turtle. Q.) CLASS REPTILIA. 123 FIG. 214. and are incubated by the heat generated through slow decomposition. The Q-avials (ga'vi alz) of India have the snout narrow and greatly elon- gated. In some localities, owing to the superstition of the natives, they are protected from destruc- tion, and have become so numerous as to be danger- ous to human life. Species of Crocodiles are -, . 1,1,1 -NT Gavid'lis ganget'lcus. Gavial. found in both the New and the Old World. The Nile Crocodile inhabits all the African rivers. In some localities it is ferocious, attack- ing the herdsman's cattle and sometimes even young children. It does some good, however, as it devours Xv >'c &VOSJS %:> > - ^nr^K- Croc o Ol' lus vul ga' ris. Crocodile. large quantities of decaying animal matter, that would otherwise pollute the water. Its snout is shorter and broader than that of the Gavial. The Alligator has a snout still shorter and broader than that of the Crocodile. Alligators are common in the swamps of our Southern 124 BRANCH VERTEBKATA. FIG. 216. Alliga'tor mis sis sip pi en' sis. Alligator. ( S L.) States, and have been captured on the Mississippi as far north as the mouth of the Ohio. CLASS AVES (a'vez). Though the blood of reptiles as well as of fishes is warmer than that of the surrounding medium, the active BIRDS have blood considerably warmer ; and lest the heat should too rapidly leave the body, the scales take on a new structure, that of the feather. The blood is forced over the body by means of a four-chambered heart, the aorta (a or'ta) passing to the right, rather than to the left as in man. The blood is purified in the lungs, branches of which, as air-sacs, are distributed to different parts of the body, some even penetrating the bones.* The skeleton offers many important structural pecul- iarities. The head bears toothless jaws, and is articulated to the neck by but a single condyle (kon'dil). But the most interesting facts are those connected with the aerial (a e'rl al) life of the animal. The bones are light f and hol- low, though of great strength. Those of the fore limb, bearing the strong feathers of flight, are highly specialized, * It is said that a bird will breathe through, the end of a broken bone when the windpipe is tied. t This is owing to their being composed largely of phosphate of lime, and the marrow in many of them being replaced by air. Singularly, at one stage, they are solid, like those of all vertebrates, but the bony tissue is afterward absorbed. "The thinnest-walled and widest air-bone of the bird of flight," says Owen, "was first solid, next a marrow-bone, and finally became the case of an air-cell." CLASS AVES. 125 FIG. 217. Skeleton of a Bird.* and that these may be easily worked, large pectoral muscles are developed, attached on each side of the strong keeled breast-bone, where also they act as ballast. The other bones of the shoulder arch are stout and compactly fast- ened together; the clavicles (kiav'i klz) joining anteriorly, to form the "wish-bone." The ribs and dorsal vertebrae are also more firmly joined than in other animals. In flying, the wing has a motion some- what like the stroke of an oar; it strikes the air with the broad side, but, in return- ing, presents only the sharp edge. The flight -offers a cu- rious problem, to which as yet no satisfactory solution has been given. It is sup- posed that the upward pressure of the air caught in the saucer-like hollow of the wing can not bend the inflexible bone and muscles of the front margin, but curves the* ends of the elastic quills upward, pushing them forward, and so forcing the bird ahead. The Plumage is a model of adaptation. The delicate filaments of a feather are covered with grasping barbs of a microscopic fineness. The under side of the wing * The principal bones of the bird's skeleton are as follows : a, Cranium. 6, Cervical vertebrae, e, Humerus. d, Caudal vertebrae, e, Sternum. /, Over- lapping processes of ribs. ;/, Keel of sternum. A, Scapula, i, Ilium, j, Clavicle. A, Coracoid. (I, Elbow joint.) m, Radius, w, Ulna, o, Carpus, p, Single bone, representing one finger. ?, Bones of a second finger, r. Bones of a third finger. (s, Opening in pelvis.) ?', Femur, v, Fibula and tibia, below which is the upright tarsometataraus, which is terminated by never more than four toes. The first toe is generally twisted round posteriorly ; it has two joints. The second toe has three joints; the third, four; and the fourth, five. 126 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. feathers is concave, to resist an upward pressure. On the tail is a gland containing oil, with which the bird FIG. 218. Plumage of a Bird. 1, Crown. 2, Forehead. 3, Nostrils. 4, Upper mandible. 5, Lower mandible. G, Throat. 7, Neck. 8, Spurious quills. 9, Occiput. 10, Ear. 11, Nape. 1-,', Breast. 13, Middle coverts. 14, Large coverts. 15, Belly. 16, Tibia. 17, Tarsus. 18, Inner toe. 19, Middle toe. 20, Outer toe. 21, Thumb. 22, Under tail-coverts. 23, Tail. 24, Primaries. 25, Secondaries. 20, Tertiaries. preens its plumage and makes it water-proof. The whole plumage is renewed (molted) once, twice, or thrice a year. This molting process is never simultaneous over the whole body, but takes place gradually corresponding feathers on both sides of the body dropping out together, and usually those not contiguous ; so that the power of flight is never completely lost, or the guiding function of the tail entirely crippled. The normal coloration not being in many instances immediately assumed after molting, has often deceived, and led to the multiplication of spe- cies not warranted by more extensive observation. In- deed, matured plumage is often dependent upon several CLASS AVES. 127 annual molts, while with some birds there is a seasonal plumage a summer and a winter with parti-colored va- riations. The distribution of the plumage over the body in tracts with most birds, permitting thereby ease of action and smoothness of the feathers under every variety of movement of the bird, is a remarkable feature, to which may be added contrary overlapping of the feathers of some certain sections, to likewise preserve smoothness under even twisting movements. All birds are oviparous.* Fm. 219. * Incubation varies according to the species. The temperature needed is 104 Fahr. The chick first pierces its shell by a pegging motion of the hardened point of the under mandible, and then enlarges the aperture by pressing with the knob-like tip of the upper mandible. This knob falls off soon after the chick emerges from its shell, as Nature abhors a useless appendage. Finally, by turn- ing from left to right, it breaks the shell about half around, when a vigorous stretch of the body, assisted by a bracing with the feet, parts the shell trans- versely, and the young bird is liberated. Sometimes the fracture extends entirely around the egg, and the two portions are completely separated from each other. But if the inner membrane of the shell be not wholly divided, the connecting portion serves as a hinge, and the two parts of the shell may, in the movements of the young bird, become set, like two cups, one within the other. The following is taken from Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, as a specimen of what every thorough teacher will require from each of his pupils in writing, with simple sketches attached, for every bird that can be obtained in the im- mediate vicinity : " Turdus migratorius (tiir'dus mi gra to'ri us) [Robin], Ameri- ' can Redbreast. Tail slightly rounded ; above olive-gray ; top and sides of the head black; chin and throat white, streaked with black; eyelids and a spot above the eye, anteriorly white ; under parts and inside of the wings chestnut-brown ; the under tail-coverts and tibise white, showing the "plum- beous inner portions of the feathers ; wings dark brown ; the feathers all Sketch of principal parts of the Robin, edged more or less with pale ash ; tail still darker, the extreme feathers tipped with white ; bill yellow, dusky along the ridge and at the tip. Length 9.75; wing 5.43; tail 4.75; tarsus 1.25 inches. Habitat, whole of North America." 128 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. The CLASS may be divided into orders as follows:* _ ^ . ORDERS. a S "2 "3 5 -- " g. jj 4 ^ Ostrich. '"* ^ ^ *a 1.3 i E c3 ** a Of smaller size Toes, four 5 ^pteryges. H a a '? S o eg tn Apteryx. * Tinatuou. r imn.TMl.ihle for flight J Sphcnisd. < Penguin, etc r 3 free or absent. short, when closed ~] CO a J3 . a ^ u o d Wings scarcely reaching ! Piigopodes. the tail. Legs Loon, etc. U & 3 5 available , posterior. > 'S 8 ^ for flight, long, passing - 5 T beyond base of tail. 1 Longipennes, < 1 "3 3 Legs at center of Gull, etc. CO 1 P ^ equilibrium. J s^) 1 1 connected by membrane with inner toe, and nearly > Steganopodes. CO ^J 1 1 level with others. ' Pelican, etc. < 1 ^ ? J Lamellirostres. } "3 ^ Duck, etc. | C Alectorides. usually short. 5 I Rail, etc. u 1 a id fibula s 1 1 - naked; posterior toe some- times wanting. Bill long, -stout and * Herodiones. inflexible. i Heron, etc. h aa 1 "3 2 Q M 3 > - S .2 c3 o i_ lone, and usually -v r J I Limicola. flexible and ) i Plover, etc. U. S ' m < O | 9 g sensitive. J O | 3 3 a 3 o V-i 1 2 c fl C JJj O H-t W o L feathered ; posterior toe rarely c Gallince. t Turkey, etc. a ^ 3 a PI 3 without cere or ~| LU 3 3 OJ o hook. Generally a. s O. A OJ naked at base, 1 Columba. > P ffl three or with large, f Dove, etc. _>> anterior, swollen skin above I "5 3 a and one . nostrils. J DC S posterior. *r <, em a Bill covered with a ^ cere at base, and 1 Raptores. ^J r o b | 5 .2 S * ' exceeding half with point of upper f Falcon, etc. D S 9 P. *I|* the length of - mandible hooked. J 0> secondary quills. 5 J t. S Toes two anterior, and two posterior, ^ Psittaci. ^ 2 a s "B outer not versatile. J Parrot etc. h S ^ g S -a *" Q " a a) S o two anterior and two posterior, ~i ^ 3 * *r 8 or three anterior and one pos- 1 J >1 ' cart(E - f f> a * a 3 S ^ terior, with the outer anterior f Woodpecker, c3 1 S .2 versatile. J ctc ' y 3 S .2 " _u Is g - not exceeding half the length of the secondary . p asseres lllll quills. Claw of the posterior toe not smaller > T^ rus i, e ^ La L than claw of the anterior mid'ile one. * The classification of Birds is unsettled. Ornithologists have not as yet agreed upon even the number of orders. Attempts have been made to establish CLASS AVES. 129 ORDER STRUTHIONES (stroo thi 6'nez). The members of this order being strictly terrestrial, lack several of the specializations characteristic of the great majority of birds, those which fly. The bones, with few exceptions, are unusually light ; while the sternum, being unused as an attachment for muscles of flight, is small and weak. The clavicles are rudimentary. Though these birds, on account of their weight and the shortness of their wings, are unable to fly, they are all rapid runners. Their legs are long and powerful, being capable of extraordinary muscular effort. When running, they scarcely seem to touch the ground, and their speed is materially increased by the flapping of their stout ru- dimentary wings, which serve as balancers. The two members of the order treated, are the African Ostrich and the South American Ostrich. Several other members, which undoubtedly excelled them in size, are now extinct. The African Ostrich is the largest living bird. There is but one species, found in the interior of Africa, but rarely in Asia, except in Arabia. Its head is naked, and its short bill is somewhat broad and rounded at the point. Its long tarsi are covered with scales, and its an ordinal system. Thus the form of the bill lias been made a basis of separat- ing the almost interminable series of Passerine (//.< '*<> In) birds into C'onirostres (ko nl roV trSz), with stout, conical bill; Denliroxtn* len ti rQs'trSz), with a toothed and usually more or less hooked tip ; Tenitirostres (ten u i r5s' trez), with an elongated and awl-shaped bill; and Fissirostres (f is el rSs'trez), with a depressed, wide gaped bill. These distinctions have proved unreliable, and are generally discarded. In such uncertainty, the classification here adopted is essentially that of Lilljeborg (lilje'borg) in "A History of North American Birds," by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway. It is, however, considered only provisional. The sixteen orders given in the table have been subdivided by recent authorities into several hundred genera, and at least ten thousand species. The limits of this book will permit the description of only a few species typical of each order, American examples being generally chosen. 130 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 220. large femur bones with voluminous muscles, but two toes on each foot. It stands six to eight feet high, and is the swiftest- footed of all animals.* It is chiefly remark- able on account of its beautiful plumes, which have been There are _-r Struth'lo came'lus. African Ostrich. prized as an adornment from the most ancient times. * The Ostrich will run thirty miles per nour. It is captured by the Arabs on their fleet steeds, only after a chase of a day or two, by several relays of horses and riders, and by pursuing in a straight line while the bird runs in a curve. One male accompanies two to six females, who lay in one nest. The hens CLASS AVES. 131 The South American Ostrich* is only about half as large as the African, but is more completely covered FIG. 221. ^Z' Ehe' a rh& a. South American Ostrich. with feathers. It has three toes instead of two, and a large hooked spur on the wings. take turns in sitting during the day, thus enabling the others to travel the long distances necessary to get food in that desert country, without leaving the nest uncovered. The male assumes the task of incubation at night, when his superior strength is needed to drive off prowling animals, which are sometimes found lying dead near the nest, killed by its powerful kick. As the young can not for some time go far, or digest the hard food of the old ones, the females continue to lay extra eggs for their nourishment. In this entire system of incubation, one can but see the nice planning of a Creator, fruitful in methods for meeting an end by varied means. An Ostrich egg is equal to two dozen of those of the domestic hen. It is cooked by placing one end in the hot ashes and stirring the contents with a stick till the omelette is roasted. In Cape Colony and Cali- fornia, there are now Ostrich-farms, where these birds are reared for their plumes. * It is also polygamous, the females laying their eggs scattered at random, which the male collects into a nest, and then broods, hatches, and even tends the young. 132 BEANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 222. P . Ap' ter yx man tel' li. Apteryx. ( ORDER APTERYGES (ap ter'I jez). This order includes birds of one- genus which inhabit the island of New Zealand. The feathers are hair-like. The nostrils, unlike those of all other birds, open at the extreme tip of the beak. The Apteryx (ap'ter Iks), of about the size of a common hen, is nocturnal in its habits. The egg is very large, and is deposited in a hole scraped by the parent in the ground. ORDER CRYPTURI (cry p tu' r i). [See table for ordinal characteristics.'] FIG. 223. ORDER SPHENISCI (sfenis'kl). The Penguin in its hab- its is half fish and half bird. It has paddle-wings, with short, rigid, scale-like feath- ers, disposed in regular or- der, and is incapable of flight. It uses its wings in swimming, by bringing them in motion alternately, while its feet answer for a rudder. Its bones are dense and heavy, with no apertures for the admission of air. It usually keeps Sphenw'cus demer'sus. Penguin. CLASS AVES. 133 near the land, but seldom visits it, except for nesting. Whole companies then sit erect along the shore, where they might easily be "mistaken for a party of choristers with surplices and black gowns." The Penguin is con- fined to the colder regions of the South.* ORDER PYGOPODES (pi gop'6 dez). The birds of this order have the tibise buried in the body nearly to the heel. This prevents walking, but favors swimming. Their feet are lobate or palmate, and their plumage is glossy. PYGOPODES. FEET THREE-TOED, PALMATE. FEET FOUR-TOED, LOBATE. FEET FOUR-TOED, PALMATE. FIG. 234. Hallux absent. Hallux lobate, free. Hallux connected. FIG. 225. Puffin and Auk. Grebe. Loon. Pod'iceps. Dobchick. ( T V) Fra ter' cii la arc' Ci ca. Puffin, Arctic Kegions. ( The Puffin and Auk\ have three toes fully webbed, short wings, and a general adaptation to a purely aquatic * The Patagoniaii Penguins are said to collect in such numbers at breeding- places as to cover thirty or forty acres. The ground is laid out in squares for their nests, as accurately as if a surveyor had been employed ; stones are removed, streets made, a wall is thrown up on the windward side, and sentinels are posted. t The Great Auk (Al'ca impen'nis) is said to have become extinct within the last half-century. A high value is placed upon the few specimens which have 134 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. life. On the land they sit upright. Most species pluck out feathers to bring their eggs into immediate contact with their flesh, for greater warmth during incubation. The Puffin drives rabbits from their holes, or burrows to the depth of two or three feet to lay its single egg, while the Auk deposits its two eggs upon a rocky shelf in the side of a cliff overhanging the sea.* The Grebe \ (greb) has its toes partly separate and flat, the edges being furnished with a broad, stiff membrane, making each one a paddle. On the land, it lies down and pushes itself along by its feet. In the water, however, it is per- fectly at home, diving and using its wings in pursuit of fishes and aquatic insects. J The Loon, or Great Northern Diver, in its mature plumage of the fourth year, has few rivals in Co lym' bus tor qua' tvs. Loon. ( iV) been preserved, there being now known only seventy-six skins and sixty-eight eggs a skin being recently bought for the American Museum in New York for $625. * The Puffin and Auk are confined to the colder regions of the North, as the Penguin is to those of the South. t The Grebe, the Auk, and other aquatic birds, are a source of revenue to the people inhabiting the rocky coasts, which they frequent in multitudes. The nests are often built in the ledges of cliffs inaccessible from below, but the hardy fowlers suspend themselves by stout ropes from the summit of the precipices, and by swinging to and fro reach every cranny and crevice of the rock, gathering eggs and young birds. The calling is a perilous one. Often the rope chafes against a projecting edge of the rock, or vertigo seizes the fowler, or he reaches too far, or slips from his footing. The men holding the rope above hear a shriek of despair, and then all is still save the roar of the remorseless waves below. If Singularly enough, the stomach of the .Grebe always contains a mass of its own feathers, involuntarily swallowed probably, in dressing and cleansing its plumage. One species makes a floating nest upon which it sits and hatches its progeny. But if disturbed, it plunges one foot into the water, and, employing it as an oar, transports its dwelling from the threatened danger. CLASS AVES. 135 beauty. Unable to move on land, except by a constant succession of awkward tumbles, in the water it is a rare swimmer and diver. Usually floating about half sub- merged, it can at pleasure settle down, showing only its head, or entirely sink, and, escaping with great swiftness, rise far distant.* ORDER LONGIPENNES (Ion jl pen'nez). The long-winged birds are distinguished by the size of their pointed wings and their palmate feet, with free, elevated hind toe. Generally oceanic, they rest upon the water, but do not dive. LONGIPENNES. f NOSTRILS TUBULAK. I I NOSTRILS NOT TUBULAR. Hallux rudimentary, or wanting. Hallux small. > Albatross. Gull. The Albatross and Petrel are characterized by a hooked bill and long tubular nos- FIG. 227. trils. The Wandering Al- batross is the largest sea- bird, having an expanse of ten to fifteen feet. Repos- ing on the surface of the water, with its head under its wing, it is often found a thousand miles from land.f Once elevated in the air, it seldom flaps its wings, and yet ascends or descends apparently without an Di o mZ de' a ex' u lam. Wandering Albatross. ( T V) * Its cry is somewhat like the howling of a wolf, and is thought to portend rain. t From a scrap of paper taken from an Albatross' neck by a sea-captain, and now preserved in the Museum of Brown University, it is conclusively proved that this bird, on one occasion at least, flew a distance between two points of 3,150 miles in twelve days. 136 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 228. effort.* The Petrel, sometimes called "Mother Carey's Chicken" is especially dreaded by sailors as the harbinger of a storm, but scientific observation has dispelled the illusion.! The Gulls are cosmo- politan, and the true scav- engers of the ocean. \ The Scissors-bill has its long, lower mandible com- pressed laterally to the shape and sharpness of a knife-blade, while it shuts into the grooved edge of the short upper one. Darting swiftly along, and cutting the water with its lower m andible, the smaller fishes Thai as sid' rb ma pe liig'i ca. Stormy Petrel. (\.) FIG. 229. chops nV gra. Scissors-bill. ('.) . struck by it, slide upward to the mouth and are immediately swallowed. . * It is found south of the equator, but there are other species on the western coast of North America. t Gleaning its scanty pittance from the whirling surges of the sea, and making its appearance in great numbers just before a storm, seeking food and shelter in the wake of the vessel, it has been charged with creating the tempest. Its flesh contains much oil, and the natives of the Faroe Islands are said to make a lamp by drawing a wick through the body of a very fat one, and lighting the end which projects from the beak. J The different species vary greatly in coloration of plumage white with va- rious shades of black predominating. But most remarkable are the varying hues of the same individual at different seasons of the year, and at different ages, making identification often very difficult. In the swiftest swallow, the expansion of wing is twice the length of body ; in the Scissors-bill it is much greater, hence more powerful. CLASS AVES. 137 PIG. 230. Stffr'na wil'sonl. Wikou's Tern. FIG. 331. The Tern has long, pointed wings, a forked tail, and slender, straight bill. The graceful evolutions of this "Swallow of the Sea," as it skims over the water and occasionally darts headlong beneath the surface, are a perpetual delight to the observer. The Skua (sku'a) is re- markable for its stout, cered bill, hooked upper mandible, and piratical habits. It will even pursue birds of its own family, and force them to give up their booty; and when they have done so, it will swoop down with the ve- locity of an arrow, and catch it before reaching the water. Eggs and small birds are also often a part of its diet, proving how well it merits the common appellation given it by fishermen as the " teaser." The Great Black-backed Gull will stand as a type of the many species which inhabit the Atlantic coast. P T It feeds principally upon fish, though sometimes upon small birds or quadrupeds, Ster co ra' ri us par asif'i cus. Arctic Skua. ( T V) FIG. 232. Lw lonor'nis mar tin' lea. Purple Galliuule (;.) Fu'tica americCt'na. Coot. (}.) The Coot, having lobecl feet, is adapted to an almost exclusively aquatic life, and hence, swimming and diving with great address, is seldom seen on the land. ORDER HERODIONES (he ro di o'nez). The Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc., are generally of large size, with long, S-bent necks, and tufts of matted feathers (powder down) on both sides of the breast and posterior part of the body. The use of these singular patches is wholly a matter of conjecture. In flying, they double their neck and stretch back their legs. The latter serve as a rudder, their short tail being unfitted for this office. The Ibis inhabits all parts of the world, and some species migrate so irregularly as to be nowhere at home. Its long, arcuate bill is adapted to rooting in the mud in CLASS AVES. 145 search of worms and small insects.* The Wood Ibis has a strong bill, with which it strikes the fish, frogs, young alligators, and snakes, that come to the surface on being disturbed by the bird's movements in the water.f FIG. 347. Fio. 248. Tan' talus loc u la' tot: Wood Iliis. ( T V) Ar'dea herod'ias. Great Blue Heron, (i.) The Great Blue Heron has a sharply-pointed, stout, conical-shaped bill, with which it pierces its prey as it approaches within length of its neck, while standing for hours on a hillock in motionless watchfulness. It is sub- ject to great variations in plumage and measurements, and three species have probably been named for one. * The Sacred Ibis (/. religid'sa) was venerated by the ancient Egyptians, probably because it rid them of serpents, the skins and scales of which have been found in the Ibis mummies. Some think, however, that the reason of this wor- ship was merely because the coming of the bird was simultaneoiis with the annual overflow of the Nile, and hence symbolical of fertility. Whoever killed an Ibis, was mobbed while the dead bird was embalmed. The Ibis multiplied in consequence to such an extent as to impede travel in the streets. The affection of the bird for Egypt was so great that, according to Acteon (ak te' on), when taken away it died of home-sickness. But now, being killed and eaten by the modern inhabitants, who have abandoned the faith of their fathers, it has almost deserted the country. FIGUIER. t When a sufficient number of its victims lie floating around, it gorges itself, often leaving many untouched, and then, stationed on the margin of the stream, patiently awaits the process of digestion. 146 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 249. Aja'ja ajaja. lloseate Spoonbill. FIG. 250. The Roseate Spoonbill of the South, nearly extinct, is the only representative of this family in the United States. It breeds the sec- ond year, but does not attain its perfect plum- age until the fourth or fifth. It is then a beauti- ful rose color, with car- mine wing and tail-cov- erts, head naked with golden-yellow skin shading into glossy black around the top of the neck, and with patches of rich buff on each side of the breast and upper part of the tail. The White Stork of Europe is exceedingly useful, feeding upon garbage and noxious creatures. It is easily tamed, and its sagacity is marvelous.* The regularity of its migra- tions has made it the subject of comment in all history, both sacred and profane. Cico'ma al'ba. White Stork. * A tame Stork has been known to join children playing hide-ahd-seek, run when touched and to distinguish the child whose turn it was to pursue the rest so well as to be on its guard along with the others. The Germans and Dutch esteem it a good omen when a Stork builds its coarse nest of sticks on their house-top. Innumerable stories are current among different nations, ascribing to the Stork gratitude, chastity, parental affection, conjugal fidelity, and filial piety. In the Tyrol, for example, a male Stork refused to migrate, and .passed several winters with his mate, who, being wounded, could not fly. CLASS AVES. 147 FIG 251. ^ Phil o he' la nil' nor. Woodcock. Its upper feathers mimic ORDER LIMICOLyE (IT mik'o le). The Plover-snipes have a long slender beak, without hard-cutting edges, and wholly or in great part mem- branous. Their narrow nos- trils are placed low down, and entirely surrounded with soft skin. The Woodcock, repre- senting all the Snipe fam- ily, has a long, grooved, flexible bill, well supplied with nerves to the end, that in probing deep into the bogs and moist turf, it may detect the worms and larvae, well the herbage beneath it, and its eyes are placed so far back, that their range of vision meets behind the head, making it a wary bird. The Avocet (av'6 set) possesses a recurved, flattened bill, useful for scooping up small fish and aquatic insects, as it sweeps the narrow runs, with a movement like that of a mower swinging a scythe. It breeds on the Atlantic Coast from Texas to Long Island, but most abundantly in the Southern States, and also in cer- tain isolated localities in the in- terior of the Continent, particu- larly in Salt Lake Valley and in the neighboring basins. For a short distance it is one of the swiftest flyers. FIG. 252. Re cur vi ros' tra a mer i ca' na. Avocet. (|.) 148 BRANCH VEKTEBRATA. FIG. 253. Hr/,\ tail-coverts FIG. 2.-.I. PIG. 258. A Pa' vo cris td' tus. Peacock. Nu'mida melea'gris. Guinea-fowl, (y^.) are decorated with eye-like spots. The true tail-feath- ers are short, un variegated, and serve only as a support for the so-called "tail." Perhaps no one of the feathered class presents such incongruities in its make-up. Its metallic hues and markings distinguish for it a coloration unrivaled by that of any other bird. But its legs and feet are homely, and its voice one of the harshest and most repulsive known. Its proud strutting with expanded tail has made its name a synonym for vanity in all ages, even the Scriptures in their single allusion to it, associating it with the frivolous apes. 152 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. The Pheasant is indigenous to Asia, but some species have become naturalized in the parks of European castles. The Argus has its secondaries, which are three times the length of the primaries, ornamented with rows of FIB. 260. Ar' ' gus gigante'us. Argus Pheasant, d'j. richly-tinted "eyes." Its tail has two feathers, so long that, while the bird is only the size of a common fowl, its extreme length is five feet. To this species likewise, Nature has denied beauty of song, or other form of at- traction than its singularly beautiful plumage, which has suggested its generic name. CLASS AVES. 153 FIG. 261. EC to pis tes mi gra to'rl . Passenger Pigeon. (J.) ORDER COLUMB>E (ko Ittm'be). The Pigeons* have the bill shorter than the head, with the nostrils imbedded in soft skin ; and the hind toe on a level with the others. Both male and female disgorge into the mouths of the young a milky sub- stance, and when a few days old, macerated grain. The Wild, or Passenger Pigeon, was once common to all parts of North Amer- ica, where it frequently col- lected in such numbers as to load with nests every tree in a forest forty miles long. Each nest contains two eggs, hatching usually a male and female, which are believed to pair at maturity. The male often makes daily excursions of a hundred miles to procure food.f Many * All the domestic varieties, now numbering nearly forty, are believed to have sprung from the Rock Dove (Colum'ba liv'la) of Europe and Asia. t Their speed is very great. Pigeons have been killed near New York with their crops full of rice, which must have been eaten in the plantations of Georgia and Carolina, six or seven hundred miles distant. As they would digest grain in twelve hours, they must have traveled a mile per minute. They fly in enormous columns, miles in length and width. It is estimated that such a flock would require millions of bushels of food each day. Audubon gives a vivid description of a resting-place on Green River, Kentucky. lie says : " The noise which they made reminded me of a strong sea-breeze amongst the cordage of a ship. When they passed above my head, I felt a current of air which astonished me. Thou- sands were already struck down by men armed with poles, but they continued to arrive without intermission. Fires were lighted. The birds precipitated them- selves in masses, and pitched where they could, one upon the other, in large heaps like barrels. Then the branches gave way under the weight, cracked and fell, bringing to the ground and crushing the closely-packed flocks, which covered every part of the trees. It was a scene of tumult and confusion. In vain I tried to speak, or even to call the persons nearest to me. It was with difficulty that I could hear the guns fire, and I only perceived the men had fired by seeing them reload their arms. Pigeons continued to come, and it was past midnight before 154 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. millions being thus congregated, it is astonishing how each bird, in returning, should go straight to its own mate and nest. ORDER RAPTORES* (rap to'rez). The Birds of this order have hooked beaks and power- ful talons. The plumage of the sexes is usually unlike, and the offspring for two or three seasons resembles the mother-bird. The male of most species is smaller than the female, and not quite so plain in its color. The order is thus tabulated : f EYES LATERAL Head naked. . . Claws blunt. Vulture, RAPTO R ES. \ EYES LATERAL Head feathered. Claws sharp. Hawk. [ EYES DIRECTED FORWARD. Outer toe versatile Owl. The American Vultures, being designed in the economy of nature to dispose of carrion, possess a strong beak for dismembering the dead bodies on which they feed. If one soaring aloft detects with its telescopic eye a carcass, the change of its flight from a circular sweep to a right line of descent is probably noticed by many others too I noticed any diminution. Tho uproar continued all night. At last, the day approached, the noise began to abate a little, and long before we could distin- guish objects, the pigeons commenced to start, and at sunrise, all that could fly had disappeared. Now it was the wolves' turn, the howls of which saluted our ears. Foxes, lynxes, cougars, bears, rats, opossums, and martens, bounding, run- ning, climbing, pressed to the quarry, whilst eagles and falcons of different species flew down from the air to take their part of such rich booty. The sports- men then, in their turn, entered into the midst of the dead, the dying, and the wounded. The pigeons were piled in heaps, each took what he wished, and the pigs were left to satiate themselves on the remainder." * The birds of prey do not deserve the name of "robbers." Their carnivor- ous propensities are only in accordance with their physiological structure, which demands animal food. Their place in the economy of nature is therefore as fixed as that of the animals on which they prey ; and to associate with them notions of cruelty and rapine is unwarrantable and irreverent. They do not, it is true, charm our ears by their songs, nor delight our eye with their colors for either would betray their presence to their victims and frustrate the design of their creation but they faithfully perform their mission as scavengers. They also, like the carnivora generally, serve to prevent the undue increase of the Herbivora. CLASS AVES. 155 FIG. 262. distant to be seen by the human eye, and thus a large nock quickly gathers from all quarters of the heavens.* The head and neck are bare, to en- able them to be plunged deeply into a carcass. As the naked skin, however, would suffer in the cold air, the base of the neck is encircled with a ruff of soft down, arising from a loose fold, into which the neck and most of the head can be withdrawn, while the over- gorged bird remains in a semi- torpid state during the diges- tion of its meal, a wise provision of Nature for its comfort. To this family be- long the California Vu Itti r e [Pseudogi ->j- phtis californianus] (su dog'ri fus kal i for- ni a'nus), the Black Vulture \_Catltarista atra I a] (kath a ris' ta a tra'ta), the Turkey Buzzard \~Rhy nog)-ij- />lius aura] (rhin- og'rifus au'ra) of the Rhyndgryphus uu ra. Turkey Buzzard. ( f V) FIG. 263. * Both sight and smell seem to aid them in the pursuit of their food. The latter sense is remarkably keen, and they have been seen to descend directly from a great height in the air to putrefying food that was concealed from their vision. Sar cor /ta/n'phus gryph'us. Condor. 156 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. warmer regions of America, and the Condor of the Andes. The last is typical of the group, and is our largest bird of prey. Its alar extent averages about nine feet. It will frequently soar for half an hour without once nap- ping its wings ; but how this is accomplished, has not been satisfactorily explained. To man, the Condor is in- offensive, nor does it often attack living prey. The Wlute-headed Eagle is the chosen symbol of our country.* It sometimes rises in the air by a series of spiral curves, and with an almost imperceptible motion of its wings, until it is a mere speck in the sky. Thence it may descend with lightning-like velocity. Its swoop is in a cycloid, which is a line of swifter descent than a perpendicular, and also easier for alighting. FIG. 264. FIG. 265, Ha li ae' tm leu co ceph ' a lus. Nan' de rus fur c idly becoming extinct. Its prevailing adult color is green with yellow head and neck, and brick-red forehead. Its curiosity is its greatest foe. One of a flock being shot, the rest will keep alighting near by, till all are captured. * Its language is often so pat as to show that the bird really understands its use. Goldsmith tells a story of a Parrot belonging to Henry VIII., which fell into th? Thames. It immediately bawled out "A boat! a boat! twenty pounds to save me." A man thinking some one was drowning, threw himself into the river, but was astonished to discover it was only a bird. Finding the king was its master, he carried it to him and claimed the promised reward. Henry laugh- ing at the story, paid the amount "with good grace." Lord Dundonald, in his autobiography, says that once some ladies were being hoisted up the sides of a vessel by means of a chair suspended by a rope. Two or three had been safely deposited on deck, when, as the chair was just starting again, a parrot shouted out, "Let go !" The sailors, thinking it the boatswain's order, dropped the rope, and away went the poor lady, chair and all, into the sea. 160 BRANCH YERTEBRATA. Cockatoos are forms often seen in our menageries. They differ from parrots in being feathered to the bill. FIG. 271. \ s ^- i > / >"" i ii', : . ; ; ; f' '.:,; ^ --; - ~~" Cacut'ua sulphu'rea. Sulphur crested Cockatoo. One genus is distinguished for its size, and its erectile, sulphur-colored crest, but especially for its longevity individuals having -lived in captivity more than a hundred years.' CLASS AVES. FIG. 272. 161 Woodpeckers. ORDER PICARI^E (pi ka'ri e). The birds of this large order are quite dissimilar in form, but possessing characteristics sufficiently similar to warrant grouping them into the same ordinal rank. 162 BRANCH VERTEBEATA. FIG. 273. \ Pi cm' des fiir su' tits. Banded Three-toed Woodpecker. (J.) . The Woodpeckers are the typical Zygodactyles (zig o- ciak'tllz) [yoke-toed], generally having toes in pairs, one pair before and one pair behind. Their tongue can be thrust far out, and a hole once made to the lurking-place of an insect, the tip, barbed on the upper side and viscid with saliva, quickly trans- fers the victim to the gullet of its captor. The tail of most ot the species aids in supporting the body. The lustrous, white eggs are laid on chips at the bottom of excavations made in the trees by the parents. The Three-toed Woodpecker, of which there are three species, is rarely found south of the Canadas or northern Maine. The Golden-winged Woodpecker is the most extensively distributed through North America, and the most beau- tifully colored of its group. The male is distinguished from the female by the black patches on its cheeks, look- ing like side-whiskers. The Ivory-billed Wood- pecker is the largest north of Central America. With its wedge-shaped bill, which is so hard as to strike fire from a flint, as does steel, it can bore a hole three feet deep for its nest in the trunk of a living tree. As a FIG. 274. Co lap' tes au ra' tus. Golden-winged Woodpecker, CLASS AVES. 163 protection from the rain, it generally makes the opening under a large branch.* Its undulating flight, often by a single sweep from tree to tree, as if the bird had been swung with closed wings in a curved line, is the perfec- tion of graceful movement. FIG. 275. FIG. 27fi. Cam pheph' \ lus prin ci pi it*: Ivory- billed Woodpecker, (-&. Sham phas' tos tu en' mis. Toucan, South America (J.) The Toucan (too'kan) is noted for a feathery tongue in an enormous bill of honey-comb structure, to render it light and yet strong. It feeds on soft fruits and meats ; and as its large bill renders necessary throwing back the head that the fruit may fall down the throat, it has been erroneously reported as tossing up its food to catch it as it falls. At roost it usually elevates the long tail over the back, and curving its neck, so disposes of the two lengthened appendages, bill and tail, as to be almost in- conspicuous. There are more than fifty species, varying greatly in plumage and size, but all have some portion of the plumage brilliant with glaring colors. * This bird is so strong that strips of bark several inches in length are often detached wit*h such rapidity as to fall to the ground in a shower. 164 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 27T Coo' cy gus a mer i cd' nus. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. (\.) The Cuckoos inhabit all countries. Their toes are in pairs, the exterior being somewhat versatile, in one species quite so. The only species found in England is parasitical in its incubation, like the American cow-bird. Its young hatches simultaneously with its nest companions, whom it soon tosses out upon the ground. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo, with its near relative, the Slack- billed [C. erythrophthalmus] , (e ri trof thal'mus), is found throughout North America. They are both fond of hairy caterpillars, which few birds will eat.* Unlike the European species, they build a nest, though it is rude and airy. Laying their eggs, how- ever, at long intervals, they protract the breed- ing season from one to four months ; the same nest often containing a new egg, one just hatch- ing, a young bird partly fledged, and another ready to fly. The Road Runner, a ground birdf found in south- western North America, is so swift of foot that for a quarter of a mile it will outrun a fleet horse. * The Cuckoo's gizzard is often found lined with caterpillars' hairs, so tena- ciously adhering by their minute barbs as to require microscopic examination to prove that they do not grow from the coating of the stomach. t It often carries the beetles and snails on which it feeds to a particular spot in order to break the shell, and thus piles of the broken fragments collect at that place. FIG. 278 Geococ'cyx California' nus. RoadRunner, CLASS AVES. 165 PIG. 279. Troch'ihis cdl'ubris. Kuby-throated Humming-bird. ( .) PIG. 280. Humming-birds are peculiarly American. About 450 species are recognized, yet only one, the Ruby-throated, visits the North Atlantic States, and but ten any part of the United States. They are the smallest as well as the gayest of birds, blending in their rich plumage the rarest colors of flower and gem. Their bills, shaped ac- cording to the form of the blossom they are designed to penetrate for insects, vary greatly some being short and straight, others longer than their bodies, and yet others greatly curved. The Humming-bird can fly so rap- idly that the eye can scarcely follow its flight, or, by beating the air with its wings, sustain itself in front of a flower almost immovable. Many species build tiny, cup-shaped nests of vege- table down, with an outer coating of lichens glued on with saliva. Each contains two little white eggs, the size of a pea. The Swift* alights readily on a * This bird is so called from its great power of flight. One species of this group (Collocdl'la es cu len' (a) is the principal maker of the " Edible ChatU'ra pelas'gia. birds' nests." The bird constructs these out of its Chimney-swallow, or Swift. (J.) glutinous saliva. When washed and soaked, they Nest of Humming-bird. PIG. 381. 166 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 382. perpendicular surface, to which it clings with its sharp claws and short spined tail. The Chimney-swallow, the only American species, while on the wing, adroitly breaks off twigs with its feet, and fastens them to the chimney with its tough, glue-like saliva so strongly that the brick to which the nest is attached will sometimes yield before the cement. The Trogons (trog'onz) of the tropics are pre-eminent for brilliancy of plumage * and lengthening of the tail feath- ers, which, in some species, exceed the other feathers by more than two feet.f form a gelatinous substance, highly esteemed by the Chinese for making soup. The nests are taken down three or four times per year from the caves to which the birds are accustomed to resort, the old nests being destroyed to compel the birds to build new ones, which, when fresh and unused, bring their weight in silver. The proprietors of a cave in Java are said to receive 50,000 florins annu/illy for rent, and 4,000,000 nests are yearly exported from the coast of Cochin China. * The ancient Mexicans kept large aviaries of these birds, both on account of their beauty and their gorgeous plumes, which were plucked at a certain season and worked into mosaic images and pictures, t They inhabit Mexico and Central America (Guatemala having chosen this bird for its national emblem), but only at the height of several thousand feet above the level of the sea. Its tones, not altogether unmelodious, are said to be ventriloquistic, often deceiving the hunter as to its distance from him. Calu'rus resplen'dens. Resplendent Calu- rus. Male and Female. ( -fa.) CLASS AVES. 167 FIR. 283. The Night-hawk* notwithstanding its popular name, retires to rest at the close of twilight, when it can no longer discern its in- sect prey.f Its sharp squeak is occasionally varied by a loud, boom- ing sound, emitted when its downward flight is arrested during a swoop **"*'* *"*** CM FIG. 284. near the surface of the earth. J Its two eggs are usually laid on a rock, or some place exposed to the sun, without any nest, though the mother broods them assid- uously, fluttering away, when alarmed, as though wounded. If disturbed, it will, like the Whip-poor-will, carry off the eggs or young in its capacious mouth to another locality. The Whip-poor-will is silent dur- ing the clay. The exceed- ingly sensitive bristles, lining each side of the upper mandible, are of use in directing the swiftly-flying insect * The Night-hawk and Whip-poor-will are commonly believed to be identical. They are really, however, distinct not only in color markings, but also generically, thus: GAPE WITHOUT BRISTLES. Tail narrow, forked. Night-hawk. GAPE WITH BRISTLES. Tail broad, roiinded. Whip-poor-will. The Chuck-will's-widow of the South is larger than the Whip-poor-will, and has bristles with lateral filaments. t Its singular habit of perching lengthwise on a limb or rail is well known ; but in confinement it often perches across a finger, or the back of a chair. t The former sound is produced by its vocal organs; the latter is thought to be by a quick, vibrating motion of the wings. An trbs' to mus vo cif e rus. Whip-poor-will. (!.) 168 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. between its mandibles. After each sally for food, it usually returns to the same perch. The King-fishers* have a long, pointed beak, and the outer and middle toes united as far as the last joint. For nesting, they dig holes ten to fifteen feet deep in a sand- bank. ORDER PASSERES (pas'ser ez). The Passeres always have the four toes on nearly the same level, with the hind one exactly opposite the others, giving great facility in perching, f They excel in vivacity and song, and stand highest in the order of classification. The Fly-catchers are American, though comparatively few of the genera belong to North America. They are not strictly insectivor- ous, but in general are in- dispensable to the farmer. The Great-crested Fly- catcher is extending its habitat northward and eastward to localities where it was unknown at the be- ginning of the century. Cer'i/le al'cj/on. Belted King-fisher, ( 'FiG. 286. My i ar' chus cri ni' tus. Great-crested Fly-catcher. (J.) It makes its nest in hollow * They always bring the fish out of the water seized near the tail. If small, it is swallowed immediately, head foremost; if large, it is carried to a rock or stump and thrashed till dead. t They are therefore known also as Insessores, or Perchers. Some authors have subdivided this order into Os' cm es, songsters, and Clam a td' res, screamers. Amid such diversity, any tabulation into families would be unsatisfactory. CLASS AVES. 169 trees or stumps, generally lining it with cast-off snake-cuticles. The Lyre-birds of Australia are noticeable for the shape of the tail and their habit of making small round hillocks, on which the male is continually trampling while grace- fully erecting and spreading its plumes. The Paradise-birds are natives of New Guinea and the adjacent islands. The apoda* (footless) is the most beautiful. The brilliant plumed tufts beneath its wings and the bright em- erald green of its head and neck are particularly striking. The Weaver-birds are found only in India and Africa, and are named from the inimitable con- struction of their nests. Some of these are pend- ent from the twigs of tall trees whose branches overhang a stream, and are shaped like an inverted bottle or chemical retort, with * The bird was so named from the absurd belief pre- vailing, when it was first introduced to the civilized world, that it had no feet, the cunning natives being accustomed to cut them off, and to assert that the bird hung to the trees by its plumes, and that it passed the breeding-season in Paradise, fed on dew. FIG. 287. Me nil' ra su pfr' ba. Lyrebird. ( Y ' 5 .) FIG. 288. Par a d'w' 8 a ap' 5 da. Emerald Bird of Paradise. 170 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. Nest of Sociable Weaver-bird FIG. 290. a long tube for the entrance, made of fibers so loosely put together that a reptile would drop off into the water. Others similarly sus- pended are pyramidal in shape and divided into two chambers the outer, per- haps, for the use of the male, and the inner for the eggs of the female. The Sociable Weaver- bird is polygamous. A col- ony of two or three hun- dred construct in a tree a huge, sloping roof, imper- vious to rain. Beneath this, side by side, each female makes her nest, three or four inches in diameter, weaving it to the roof. ^^ completed, the lower surface of the umbrella-like structure appears perforated by small openings, like the cells of a bee-hive, all the birds living together in perfect harmony. The Cow-bird is gre- garious and polygamous, exhibiting neither conju- gal nor parental affection. The female lays in the nests of other birds, usu- ally those of similar ap- \.) FIG. 291. petite, and whose eggs hatch two days later. The adoptee CLASS AVES. 171 Cor' r-us cu' rax. nestling being larger, obtains the greater share of food, and its foster companions are generally soon stifled or starved.* Crows and species of Jays pass so insensibly into each other as hardly to present a dividing line. The Raven, though rare in the Eastern -i , -, States, is generally distrib- uted throughout North America.! It exhibits wonderful FIG. 293. sagacity in eluding the hunter, seem- ing to detect at a glance the differ- ence between a person going quietly about his business and one "on mis- chief bent." The Blue Jay's pleasing plumage is in startling contrast with the harsh notes of its ordinary song. Chough irritable and quarrelsome, it has been tamed and taught to pronounce cer- tain words. It is of great service in planting the seeds of forest-trees and in devouring, during the winter sea- son, the eggs of the destructive tent-caterpillar. Cy an u' ra cris ta' ta. Blue Jay. ( .) * Their dead bodies are probably removed by their parents, as they are never found near the nest, which would be the case, if, like the Cuckoo of Europe, they were thrown out by the young Cow-bird. t The Raven is generally considered as of evil omen. It is easily tamed and taught to repeat sentences. Charles Dickens, in his preface to " Barnaby Rudge," gives his amusing experience with tame Ravens. Our common Crow (Cor' m* ameriaTnvs) can be distinguished from the Raven by being much smaller and by having its throat-feathers oval and close ; while those of the Raven are sharp and scattered. The J?ook ( C. fru gil' e gu.i), so familiar to every European traveler, and which congregates in flocks about churches and old ruins, does not eat carrion, 172 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 294. The Baltimore Oriole, noticeable for its brilliant plum- age, almost invariably reaches the latitude of Southern New England on the 10th of May. Its rich and full-toned melody defies verbal equivalents.* Though pernicious by injuring the pea-crop, it more than compensates by destroying the canker-worm and the tent -caterpillar, which few birds venture to disturb. The Oriole's, nest is composed of vegetable fibers, hair, etc., woven into a kind of purse, hung from the end of a limb.f Ic'te rus bal' Ci mure. Baltimore Oriole. FIG. 295. Nest of Oriole. * Nutall describes the notes of its song thus : Tshippe-tshayia-too- too - tshippe - the - tshippe - too - too. The failure will be apparent to all who compare it with the original. t In the museum of Brown Uni- versity is a nest originally sustained by threads, fastened around two twigs forming a fork. One of the twigs break- ing off three days before the young were CLASS AVES. 173 FIG. 296. Dolichon'yx or y ziv'o rous. Bobolink, or Rice-bird. ( \.) FIG. 397, The Bobolink is one of the most beneficial or destruc- tive of birds, according to the season of the year and the locality. In its spring migrations, it is the pest of the Southern wheat-fields ; and in its autumnal flight, of the rice planta- tions. It renders, however, a redeem- ing service in devouring cotton-worm larvae, and in its breeding-places it is purely insectivorous. The female conceals her nest on the ground amidst the standing grass, alighting or rising a distance from it.* The Larks are distinguished by long and nearly straight hind claws. The Shore-lark is the only representative in- digenous to North America ; but the most noted is the European Sky -lark, which has been introduced into cer- tain localities of the United States. It rises with quiver- ing wings almost perpendic- ularly, singing the while, Erenwph'lla cor nu> ta. Shore-lark. ( J., unt jl J t passes Out of sight, though not out of hearing; and then drops headlong down into the meadow again, in a very ecstasy of song. ready to fly, the old bird procured a piece of twine at least two feet in length, and, after winding several inches of one end many times around the part of the branch still imbedded in the matting of the nest, drew all taut and then fastened the other end by a tuck-under knot to a fork in the branch full ten inches above. Fig. 295 is engraved from a photograph of this curiously-mended nest. * The grotesque, though charming song of the Bobolink is a curious medley of jingling, incomprehensible notes, uttered with an earnestness that borders upon the ludicrous, especially when thirty or forty begin, one after another, and at length get into an exact concert ; but, when the listener is just beginning to be enraptured, the music suddenly ceases. 174 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. The Cross-bill, when matured, has its mandibles lap- ping, though the young do not possess this peculiarity. While this anomalous form does not unfit the bird for eating insects and soft fruit, it peculiarly adapts it to obtain food from the seed of pine and fir cones.* PIG. 298. FIG. 299. Cur vi ros' tra leu cop' te r<*. Cur vi ros' tra a mer \ ca' na. Cross-bill. (}.) Melos'jiiza melo'dla. Song- sparrow. The Finches f are distinguished by a short, conical bill, usually notched. The Song-sparrows are our earliest and latest musicians. Those nesting in the far north pass the latitude of New England late in November, and return, in early March ; always in full song, with notes " louder, clearer, and more vibratory than those that come * These seeds are concealed beneath, hard scales. To secure them, the bird, clinging to the slender twig with one foot, grasps the cone with the other ; then inserting its bill between the scales, by drawing the lower mandible sideways, pries them apart, when the tongue, which is furnished with a peculiar horny scoop, darts into the opening, dislodges the seed and carries it to the mouth. t The necessity of examining not only a great number of specimens of the same bird, but also those from different localities, is especially apparent in this group. Each region of North America seems to possess a different variety. So completely, however, do the forms of a series of hundreds of specimens from different places, insensibly grade into one another, that eight species have been united in one by recent authors, a fact commending itself persuasively to the attention of young students of Nature. CLASS AVES. 175 FIG. 300. Py ran' ga ru' bra. Scarlet Tanager. (J.) to us and remain to breed."* It nests both on the ground and in trees, only the older birds selecting the latter, as though taught by experience the greater security. The male Scarlet Tanager (tan'ajer), in the third and following years, has, with the exception of the jet-black wings and tail, a fiery-red plumage, in brilliant contrast with the green leaves among which it flits. After the Au- gust molting, and during the first year, it is not distinguishable, in its greenish livery, from the female, its gay summer plumage being assumed 011 re-entering our southern borders in the spring. The birds of this group feed mainly upon insects, and claim protection as among the most useful of our songsters. The Shrike devours the larger insects and smaller birds, striking them sense- less by one blow upon the head with its powerful toothed beak. Its claws being feeble, it impales its victims upon thorns, often a number at a time on the same bush, that it may eat them at its leisure. While dismembering, it cunningly stands upon the inner side, so as to transfix them more completely.! * Individuals have been known to sing "nine entirely different sets of notes," usually uttering them one after another in the same order. t In like manner it has been observed, when in confinement, to weave the FIG. 301. Col lil n o lo re a' Us. Shrike, or Butcher-bird. ( i.) 176 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 302. The Cedar-bird is noticeable for the exquisitely fine and silky texture of its plumage ; its erectile crest ; and the remark- able appendages to the shafts of the secondaries (and sometimes to the tail), of a bright vermilion, resembling red sealing-wax. It appears in New England about the last of May, in flocks of fifteen or twenty, ridding the orchards of the destructive span-worm, or canker-worm ; and then pairing off and nesting late in June or early in July. In return for .its invalu- able services, it helps itself somewhat freely to the smaller fruits, and hence is most un- wisely persecuted.* The Swallows have long wings, which enable them to be almost constantly in flight, f The Barn Swallow is the most common species, and is de- Am pZ' Us ce dro' rum. Cedar-bird. ( \.) FIG. 303. Hi run' do hor re 0' rum. Barn Swallow. ( J.) body of a mouse between the wires of the cage, that it might bear a heavier pull while being torn in pieces. * Often alighting side by side, the outer one of the series will pluck a cherry within reach and pass it to the second, and he to the third, and so on to the end, and then back again to where it started, repeating the maneuver several times, until, the appetite whetted xip, some one of the line will take a bite and spoil the fun. t The Swallow flies at a rate of more than a mile a minute, which, if sus- tained during ten hours a day for ten years, the supposed life of the bird, would give over two million miles, or upward of eighty-seven times the circumference of the globe. The wide-spread belief that the flying high of Swallows indicates settled fair weather, and the flying low foul weather, may have foundation in the barometric changes of the atmosphere, varying the height of the strata of air in which they forage for insects. CLASS AVES. 177 FIG. 304. Phi Id me' la luscin'ia. Nightingale. (J.) servedly a favorite, as there is no evil blended with its many benefits. Purely insec- tivorous, it destroys alike the pests of fruit-trees, of cattle, and of man. The Two-colored Swallow \Hirundo bicolor] (hi run' do bi kol'or) builds in our bird- houses. The Nightingale of Europe has been famed from time immemorial for the sweetness of its voice. It is a shy bird, but its song is occasionally heard during the day, though it is most pleasing in the silence and serenity of a moon- light evening. Both sexes sing, though the male excels. FIG. 305. Its plumage is a modest reddish-brown above and a whitish-gray beneath a mimicry adapting it to the foliage among which it loves to hide itself. The Slue-bird repre- sents in America, the sia'iis. Biue-bM. a* Robin-redbreast* [Enjth- acus rubecula] (e rith'a kus ru bek'u la) of Europe. Were the blue of the former replaced by the brown-olive of the latter, the two birds could hardly be distinguished.! * The European Robin-redbreast must not be confounded with the American Robin. t Their social nature corresponds as fully as their physical, and the Blue-bird would figure as appropriately in the beautiful legend of " The Babes in the Wood, " as the traditional Robin-redbreast, 178 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 306. The Thrushes are found in all parts of the world. The bird organization reaches in them its high- est development. The Mocking-bird* is remarkable for its varied melody and wonderful power of imitation, t The Robin alone of its family seems to court the Mi' mus -pot y glot' tus. Mocking-bird. ( {.) society of man, following close upon the plow and spade, and often nesting in a corner of the piazza. It is a ground bird, seldom picking worms from a tree, and never catching them as they dangle in the air, but snap- ping them up the moment they touch the sod. One of the earliest-comers and lat- est-goers of the migratory birds, no one labors more zealously in the service of Tur' dm mi grata' rim. Robin. ( .'.) all, or, in comparison with the good it does, takes a smaller amount of toll.J FIG. 307. * Southern Pennsylvania is the usual northernmost limit of the Mocking bird, although it has been known to breed for successive years in Massachusetts. t There are few songs or sounds which it does not mimic so perfectly as to deceive the most experienced ear. As it pours forth its medley of harmonious music and discordant noise, birds answer to what they think is the call of their mates, or the scream of the hawk ; the dog hastens to what he imagines the whistle of his master ; the hen hurries at the fancied cry of her frightened brood, and the child runs to the window, attracted by the supposed sound of a creaking wheelbarrow. t However voraciously he may for a single month feed upon strawberries and cherries, the rest of the season he serves both the horticulturist and the agriculturist. In nothing is he injurious to the latter; while to both he is in- CLASS MAMMALIA. 179 CLASS MAMMALIA (mam ma'li a). General Characteristics. To the class of MAMMALS be- long man and those animals which resemble him in the most important parts of their organization. The distin- guishing features of this class are, that they suckle their young, and that their bodies have, in general, a full or partial covering of hair. Some being designed for a life purely terrestrial, others mainly aerial, and others aquatic, they exhibit, as compared with the birds, great variety of structure, as will appear in the following tabulation for Orders : * ORDERS. EXAMPLES. OVIPAROUS FORMS, BIRD-LIKE Mon 5 trem' a td. ..Duckbill. YODNG CARRIED IN POUCH Mar su pi (l'H a Opossum, etc. TOOTHLESS FORMS Eden td'td Sloth., etc. FORMS WITH GNAWING TEETH Hoden'tld Eat, etc. SMALL BURROWING FORMS In sec fiv'o rd Mole, etc. FLYING FORMS Chei rbp'te rd Bat. WHALE-LIKE, CARNIVOROUS Ce ta'ce d Wliale, etc. WHALE-LIKE, HERBIVOROUS SI re'nl d Manatee, etc. FORMS WITH PROBOSCIS Pro bos cld'e d. . . .Elephant. FEET PARTLY HOOFED, GNAWING FORMS Hyracotd'id. Coney. FOUR FEET HOOFED, GRAZING FORMS Un ffu lit' td Horse, etc. TEETH COMPLETE, FLESH EATERS. . Car nlv'o rd Cat, etc. FORMS WITH PREHENSILE FEET, NON-ERECT Quadrumd'nd Monkey. ERECT, TWO-HANDED El ma' nit Man. valuable for destroying the larvae of almost every insect found upon or (within the length of its bill) beneath the surface of the soil. Wherever the Robins and birds of similar habits are destroyed, these insects and worms increase to an alarming extent. A wise Creator has designed the birds not only for ornament and pleasure, but to serve a definite purpose in protecting vegetation. Prudence would teach us to protect them as our faithful servants. * Dental Formula. As the teeth present important characteristics for classi- fying the Mammals, zoologists designate the number by a formula, which, as applied to man, reads thus : .2 2 11 2 2 33 * 2=2" P 1 = 1' ^ 2 = 2' m 3=3 = 32< This signifies that there are eight incisors, two on each side of each jaw ; four canine teeth back of the incisors ; eight premolars (bicuspids) back of the canine ; and twelve molars back of the premolars. 180 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. PIG. 308. ORDER MONOTREMATA (mon o trem'a ta). The Monotremes (mon'o tremz), found only in Aus- tralia and vicinity, form a connecting link between the Birds and the Mammals. The Duck-bill* introduces us to the Mammals. The bill of a duck is attached to the body of an otter ; while the male bears on the inner side of the ankle a spur re- sembling that of the domestic fowl. The fore feet have a web extending be- yond their extremities, which can be folded up when the feet are used for burrowing, or expanded when em- ployed in swimming. The hind feet are webbed only to the base of the nails. The body is covered with fur, beneath which is a layer of wadding-like hair, impervious to water. Its burrow runs under ground forty or fifty feet, with one entrance under water, and another just above. At the farther end is a nest of grass, for the rearing of its young, which are hatched and cared for as in the following genus. It swims upon the surface, diving frequently, like the duck, and using its bill for securing its food of small insects and crustaceans ; these are stored in its capacious cheek- pouches, till it comes to the surface to masticate them at its leisure. So far as present discoveries indicate, it stands lowest in the series of mammals. The Porcupine Ant-eater has a bird-like head, though Or ni tho rhyn' chus an a tl' nus. Duck-bill. ( J.) * See "Fourteen Weeks in Geology," p. 173, CLASS MAMMALIA. 181 FIG. 309. the jaws lack the horny covering of the Duck-bill. It has no teeth, and feeds on insects, which it captures with its long flexible tongue. Its body is covered with hair and spines. When surprised, it rolls itself into a ball, or burrows flatwise into the earth . , . . EcKid'na hys' trix. Porcupine Ant-eater. (*.) with surprising rapidity. Recent investigation asserts that this animal deposits an egg which is placed in a fold of the skin a pouch until it finally hatches ; the young is retained in the pouch, by the mother, until it is able to care for itself. ORDER MARSUPIAL1A (mar su pi a'li a). The Marsupials (pouched) are not over an inch long at > birth, when they are immediately transferred to a pocket FIG 310 formed by the skin of ^^BH. ^*OM. ^ ie m ther's abdomen. Jll Nourished by milk, they remain there, as in a liv- ^^^^^||^^^ ing cradle, till able to take care of themselves. The dentition shows that some are carnivorous, while others are herbivo- rous. Except two genera, they belong to Australia Mdel'phys vir gin i a' na. Opossum. -, -IT and adjacent islands. The Oiwssuni belongs to this Continent, but of the thirty species, only one is found in North America. The 182 BRANCH VERTEBEATA. FIG. 311. common variety is about the size of a cat, with a pointed head ; large, naked ears ; sharp teeth ; rough tongue ; long, prehensile tail ; and curved claws.* It is mostly nocturnal and arboreal, and both herbivorous and carnivorous. The Kangaroos are noted for their small fore and large hind limbs. The latter with the power- ful tail form a tripod to sustain the animal when sitting ; but when feeding, it goes upon all fours. The young often protrude their heads from the abdominal pouch and crop the herbage at the same time with the mother. When alarmed, the Kangaroo bounds off twenty feet at a leap.f Its eyes are large and have a peculiar gazelle-like expression, in strange contrast to that of its glistening white teeth. The different species vary in height from that of a rabbit to that of a man ; the Macropus being the largest. Australia and the ad- jacent islands are the home of the Kangaroo. * Hunting the animal is a favorite sport in some of the Southern States. In the bright moonlight evenings of the autumn, parties go out for this purpose with dogs. The Opossum hides in the thick branches of a tree ; but, when shaken down, rolls into a ball and feigns itself dead ; after a few moments it slowly opens one eye, then the other, and if unhindered sneaks away. The young weigh only about four grains when put in the pouch by the lips of the mother, and are blind and deaf. Within a week their tails become prehensile enough to twine around one another's bodies. In five weeks they are able to crawl out and are sometimes found on the back of the mother, with their tails grasping hers, which, in turn, may be twisted about a branch. t It is eagerly hunted for its flesh and skin. Though an exceedingly timid animal, dying often in captivity of sheer fright, yet, when brought to bay by the hounds, it seizes them with its fore limbs and endeavors either to drown them, in the water, or to lay them open with its hind claw, Mac' ro pus ma'jor. Kangaroo. ( &.) CLASS MAMMALIA. 183 Dn'sypus tw mm cine' tm. Nine-banded Armadillo, FIG. 313. ORDER EDENTATA (e den ta'ta). The Edentates FIG. 312. have the teeth, w hen present, poorl}- developed, the claws remark- ably strong, and the body protected by unusual dermal outgrowths. The Armadillos (armadll'loz) were so called by the Spaniards from their "coat of mail." This bony armor con- sists of agglutinated hairs ; free- dom of motion being secured by a series of transverse bands. The so-called Nine -banded Armadillo, which may have from six to ten bands, abounds in Central America, and is do- mesticated to clear the houses of vermin. The Mataco (mat' a ko), or Three-banded Armadillo, does not burrow, but for defense rolls itself into a ball. The Pichiciago Cfila myph'b rus truncd'tus. Pichiciago. (J.) (pish I cha' go) Tol y pen' Us tri cmc 1 tus. Three-banded Armadillo. ( i> 5 .) FIG. 314. 184 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. \ w resembles the mole in its habits. Its short tail, bent under the body, serves to make a tripod with the fore feet, " while the hind feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with incredible swiftness. The Sloths* are naturally divided into the two-toed and three-toed. They are peculiar in having the num- ber of cervical vertebrae different from the nor- mal, one of the two- toed having six, while the three-toed have nine. All other mammals, with the single exception of the Sirenia (si re'm a), invariably have seven. The hair is of a peculiar texture, counterfeiting the masses of moss which drape the tropical forests, and is given a green hue by the presence of a small plant which grows attached to it. They are found only in the tropical regions of the New World. The Ai, so called from its cry, lives on the under side of the branches of trees, even sleeping suspended back downward. Its elongated arms are of use in reach- ing for boughs, the succulent leaves of which it draws to itself for food. The Giant Ant-eater of South America has toothless Brad' y> pus tri dac' tfy lus. Ai, or Three-toed Sloth. ( T 1 5 .) * Cuvier said of this family, " Nature seems to have amused herself in pro- ducing something imperfect and grotesque." Their fore legs are so much larger than their hind ones, that when they try to walk on the ground, they have to drag themselves along on their knees, and they seem awkward enough ; but when moving on the forest-trees they are seen to be well adapted to their in- tended life. In avoiding pursuit, they swing from limb to limb with great rapidity, particularly in a gale of wind, when the branches are swaying toward one another. Their flesh is good eating, and they are obliged to remain con- stantly in the tree-tops to escape their numerous enemies, CLASS MAMMALIA. 185 FIG. 316. .. Myrmecoph'a ga jub&'ta. Giant Ant-eater. jaws a foot long. It can open its mouth, however, only far enough to thrust forth its long, worm-like tongue. With its fore feet, armed with powerful nails, it tears open an ant-hill, when the bewildered inmates rush out, and, sticking to its tongue, viscid with saliva, are rapidly swept into its mouth. When sleeping, it wraps itself in its large, bushy tail, and thus mim- ics a heap of dried grass, to escape the notice of its enemies. Attacked, it rises upon its hind feet, and clasps its enemy, its strong claws being a match for the Jag- uar (jag a ar'). It is, how- ever, quite inoffensive, and rarely uses its great strength except in defense. The Long-tailed Pango- lin (pan'go lin), found in Asia and Africa, is re- markable for its covering of large, horny scales, re- Ha'nis longicau'aa. Long tailed Pangolin. gembling the tileg of & roof, which effectually shields it from the attacks of ants.* It walks on its knuckles, with its toes turned inward. FIG. 317. * W. T. Hornaday says of a species lie found in Ceylon, and kept for some days as a pet, that, if alarmed, "he immediately tucked his head down between his fore legs, brought his tail under his body and up over his head, and held it there, forming of himself a flattened ball, completely covered with scales. Unable of myself to uncoil him, I called to my aid two of my assistants, but the tail stuck to the body as if it had been riveted there, and after wrestling with it till I s<; BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 318. ORDER RODENTIA (ro den'shi a). The Rodents (gnawers) lack canine teeth, but have two upper and lower incisors, fitted to gnaw bark, roots, woody stems, nuts, etc. These are long, slightly curved, and deeply rooted in the jaw. The molars are generally ridged trans- versely, and the lower jaw moves backward and forward in mastica- tion. Most of the order have clav- icles, and hence rotary motion of the arms, allowing the food to be held to the mouth while gnawing. The edges of the teeth are of necessity always sharp, since the anterior portions are protected by an intensely hard and resisting enamel, while the softer substance of the back is constantly being worn away.* n i f Tail short, i I MOLAR TEETH I furpy \ Hare. rudimentary. \ WITHOUT BOOTS. 1 Tailless ............ Guinea Pig. ( Tail short. \ , \ Porcu)nne. bristly. > Skull of a Rodent. RODENTIA. ^ Clavicles f MOLAR TEETH . well developed, f WITH ROOTS. Tail long, , Jumping thinly haired, i Gopher. Tail medium, ; partially naked, f Tail varying in i , - Mouse. length, scaly. ) Tail flattened, scaly. I Beaver. Tail long, . 8quirrd bushy. ' fairly exhausted, we gave up, beaten. Such was the wonderful power in the tail of that small animal." Two Tears in the Jungle. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 1886. * If one of the incisors be broken off, its opposite continues to grow, some- times curving, in which case at length it locks the jaw, and f he wretched animal starves to death. CLASS MAMMALIA. 187 FIG. 310. The Hares are distinguished by two small teeth be- hind the chisel-like upper incisors. Flight being their chief means of protection, their ears are peculiarly adapted to catch the faintest rustle, and their eyes to glance easily in eve'ry direction. When alarmed, they stamp with their feet, as if to give notice of danger ; and, with seeming consciousness of their mimicry, often merely squat behind a clod, and, suffering their pursuers to run over them, quickly start off in a contrary course. They generally lie concealed during the day, and venture forth only at night, seeking their food of grass, roots, and tender buds. There are several geographical varieties in the United States. The Nortl/crn Hare has in summer a tint of reddish-brown and in winter an impure white. It never burrows, but makes a "form" of grass, etc., in which it crouches, and trusts to its mimicry for concealment. It is a timid creature, loving the recesses of the thickest woods. It runs with great speed, and has been known to clear over twenty feet at a single bound. It is very fierce, however, and when overtaken will scratch and bite severely. The (rrn/i Ittihliil does not change its t'ur in the winter to so decided a white as the Northern Hare, or White Rabbit, as il is often called. Though making burrows L( pus a )(/ i en n is. (irav Rabbit.* * This animal, tin.- smallest of the hares, is misnamed in this country, as there is no rabbit indigenous to America. 188 BRANCH VERTEBRATA. FIG. 321 FIG. 322. Le'pus cam pis' tris. Jack Rabbit. (&.) itself, when pursued, it will also take refuge in those of other animals. The Jack Rabbit of Mexico and the Western States, is remarkable for its big ears. The Guinea Pig, originally from South America, is do- mesticated in all parts of the world. Though exceedingly quarrelsome with its fellows, it is gentle toward other ani- Ca'ma cobai'a. Guinea Pig. (.) CLASS MAMMALIA. FIG. 3a3. The Porcupine of Europe and Africa has its back, sides, and short tail covered with spines varying from three to fifteen or more inches in length. All the American species have much shorter spines ; in most not over five inches for the longest, and usu- ally intermingled with abun- dant hair, longer, and thus con- cealing the spines. * The spines are barbed with numerous re- versed hooks or prickles, which are easily detached, and, once imbedded in the flesh, work deeper and deeper.* Jumping Mice are remarkable for their long tails and cheek-pouches. They leap away from their enemies in FIG. 334. JJy